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' Th e DiamMB ' CooiogiealAib B M ^ ' 




THE JOURNAL 



ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 



LONDON. 



VOLUME THE FOURTH. 
18S4. 



LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREEl'. 

UDCGCXXXIV. 



^f- 



212 




LONDOIf: 

rnoteil by William (w^wm* 

nuk«««treel, Lunbelh. 



• • 



313736 



1 1 i LOHDUH : 

rilnli^l by Win...!. rr..,«i. 



CONTENTS. 



AETICLB p^Q, 

I.— Papers regarding the Practicability of fcNrming a Navigable 
Passage between Ceylon and the M^n Land of India. 
1.-— Minute on the subject, by the Right Ho^iourable 
the GoTemor of Madras (S. R. Lushington, Esq.)— 
2. — Report on the Straits which separate the Ramnad 
Province in the Peninsula of India from the Island of 
Ceylon 1 

II.— Journal of a Voyage up the Massaroony in 1 83 1 • . 25 

III. Woumey through the Himma-leh Mountains to the Sources 
of the River Jumna, and thence to the Confines of 
Chinese Tartaiy: performed in April— October, 1827 41 

rV.— Hints on the Sul^ect of Geographical Arrangement and 

Nomenclature ; 72 

V. — Papers descriptive of the Countries on the North-West 
Frontier of India:— -The Thurr, or Desert, Joodpoor, 
and Jaysulmeer 88 

VL-rOeogTaphical Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essing- 
ton, on the Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Australia; 
with some Observations on the Settlements which have 
been establbhed on the North Coast of New Holland . 129 

VII.— rExtracts fh>in a Spanish MS., giving an Account of certain 
Expeditions undertaken by Order of the King of Spain, 
between the Years 1749 and 1776, and of the establish- 
ment of a Colony on the Island of Juan Fernandez . 182 

• • • 

VIII. — Observations on the Manners of the Inhabitants who occupy 
the Southern Coast of Arabia and Shores of the Red 
Sea ; with Remarks on the Ancient and Modem Greo- 
graphyof that quarter, and the Route, through the 
Desert, from Kosir to Keneh 192 



2 1 2726 



U>NliOI« : 

I'l inf r.l Ijy WitiiAM CiA^nEi, 
t)uke-tUrrt, Lambeth. 



I 



< ■ 
■ • 




CONTENTS. 



I.~P^iera regaiding the Practicability of fimning a N»igkble 
Puuf^e between Ceylon and the Main Land of India. 
1.— Minute on the lut^eet, tiy the Right Honourable 
the GoTCmor of Madraa (8. R. Lushington, Eaq.)— 
2.— Report on the Straits which separate the Ramnad 
Province in the Peninsula of India from the Island of 

Ceylon 

II.— Journal of a Voyage up the Mauaroony in 1831 
III.^Joumey through the Himnut-Ieh Uountaiiu to the Source* 
of the River Jumna, and thence to the ConAne* of 
Chinese Tartaiy: perfbnned in April— October, 1B27 

IV.— Hints on the Suttfcot of Geographioal Arrangemait and 
Nomenclature 

v.— Papers descriptive of the Countries on the North-West 
Frontier of India:— The Thuir, or Desert, Joodpoor, 

and Jaysulneer 

VI.— Geographical Memoir of Melville Island and Fort Elling- 
ton, on the Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Australia; 
with soine Observations on the Settlements which have 
been estabhshed on the North Coast of New Holland . 
VII.— ^Extracts from a Spanish MS., giving an Account of certain 
Expeditions undertaken by Order of the King of Spain, 
between the Years 1749 and 177S, and of the establish- 
ment of a Colony on the Island of Juan Fernandez 
Vni. — Observations on the Manners of the Inhabitants who occupy 
the Southern Coast of Arabia and Shores of the Red 
Sea; with Remarks on the Ancient and Modem Geo- 
graphy of that quarter, and the Route, through the 
Desert, from Kosir to Keneh 



IV . CONTENTS. 

ANALYSES, Sw. 

ARTICI.B PAOK 

I. — Private Journal kept on board H. M. S. Favourite, on the 

Newfoundland Station 207 

II. — Private Journal kept on board H.M.S. Leven, when sur- 
veying the Coast of Africa 220 

III. — ^Aide-M^moire du Voyageur, ou Questions relatives k la 

€k*ographie Physique et Politique, &c. . . . 229 

IV.— Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper Mississippi 
to Itasca Lake, the actual Source of this River ; em- 
bracing an Exploratoiy Trip through the St. Croix and 
Burnt-wood (or Bois-Br{^l^) Rivers, in 1832 . . 239 

v.— Journal of Travels in the Beylik of Tunis . . . 255 

VI. — ^View of the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Na- 
tion ; demonstrating their ancient Discovery and Pro- 
gressive Settlement of the Continent of America . 253 

VII. — ^Joumal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia, in fur- 
therance of the Objects of the Church Missionary So- 
ciety 268 

VIII. — 1. Journey to the North of India, Overland fi*om England 
through Russia, Persia, and Affghanistan. 
2. Travels into Bokhara, being the Account of a Journey 

from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia . . .278 

IX. — Narrative of a Passage from Bombay to England ; describ- 
ing the Author's Shipwreck in the Red Sea, and subse- 
quent Journeys across the Nubian Desert . . . 318 

X. — ^The London Atlas of Universal Geography . . , 320 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

I. — Memoir on the Warow Land of British Guiana 

^ II. — Extract from a Private Letter addressed to Captain Sabine 
R.A., F.R.S., by Mr. David Douglas, F.L.S. 

III. — Account of the Island and Province of Chiloe . 
IV.— Expeditions into the Interior of South Africa . 
v.— Reports on the Navigation of the Euphrates . 
VI.— Altitudes of Places in Kumaon 



321 

333 
344 
362 
374 
377 




PAPERS READ 



ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 



y—Pufett regarding the PraelkabiUty of flaming a Natilgahle 
Pauage between Ceylon and the Main Land of India. I . — 
Hinute on the nibjecl, by the Right Honourable the Governor 
"fMadrax (S. R. Limhingfon, Esq.) ; communicated by Admi- 
ral Sir E. \V. C. H. Owen. K.C.B. i.—Reporl on Ike SlraiU 
uhick separate the Ramnad Province in the Peninmla of 
Iniiia from the htand of Ceylon : by Afajor Sim, E.I.C.S., 
1830; communicated by I. ieut.- Colonel W. Mouteith, En- 
gineers, E.I.C.S., F.R.G.S. Read 25tU Nov., 1833. 

1. — Minute oftheRigkl Honourable the Governor ofMadraa, 
Nov. 1828. 
I HAVE the honour to submit to the Board some documents, 
which I have had under cons i iteration for a short time past, con- 
nected with the trade and navigation of these lerrilones, in the 
hope that something further may be done for the improvement of 
both. With this view, 1 have examined the details of our imports 
and exports for the last twenty-live years, and I am happy to find 
the result more favourable than 1 had anticipated. It is, how- 
ner, only to a portion of this trade that tlie proposition I have 
to submit extends. It now passes by a very circuitous route 
round Ceylon, and down, at most seasons of the yenr, eight 
degrees beyond the equator. To avoid calms upon the line, and 
in order to weather the island of Ceylon, the Maldiva areliipe- 
Ugo, and the Chajos archipelago, a vessel sailing during the 
■outh-west monsoon, between Madras and Bombay, performs a 
voyage of five thousand miles, although the real distance by sea 
does not exceed fifteen hundred miles. This source of expense 
and loss of time is severely felt, even upon this portion of the 
trade of this coast ; and it must also press with some Meight upon 
the trade between Calcutta and the other coast. 

My attention was first called to this subject when I was in 
charge of the southern provinces lliirty yeais ago, and had undtr 



• * • 



• • • 

• f 



• » 

£ Qnd'Navigdble Passage between 

» * 

nie that narre>M»]'cnannel which separates Palk's Strait from the 
Manar GulC'b;^:/^ passage of not Haifa mile broad, called the Pass 
of Paumbri'^. At that time I beard regrets continually expressed 
by a lonjgalnl much revered resident and officer, Colonel Manuel 
Martin«^^ tRat the trade of the two coasts of Coromandel and Ma- 
labar, V.ust' of Bengal, should be so much obstructed by this shal- 
lovr .channel ; always accompanied by the expression of his san- 
gnineiiopes that something would be done, and he thought it 
.t'c»iCki be easily done, to open it. The opinion of a person dis- 
;''V^guished as Colonel Martinez was for a strong understanding and 
' ific purest intentions, led me to this spot shortly before I left the 
'southern countries ; and, to my eye, the undertaking did not ap- 
pear one of great difficulty. The calmness of the sea at some 
periods of the year, the quality uf the stone which intersects the 
passage, and the presence of a large population of divers upou 
that part of the coast, seemed to offer peculiar facilities to the 
removal of a portion of this great obstruction to the navigation 
and commerce of our territories. 

Nothing, however, was done until 1822, when Colonel De 
Havilland recommended to the Marine Board a regular survey of 
the passage, from the opinion he had also formed, from local recol- 
lection, that it might be improved without very great expense ; 
and he proposed that inquiry should be made to ascertain if the 
advantages contemplated, in the event of success, were of such 
importance as to render any measure towards it advisable. 

This letter was addressed to the Marine Board, who consulted 
Mr. Sullivan, the commercial resident at Tinnevelly, for the pur- 
pose of obtaining this information. Mr. Sullivan declared it to 
be his opinion, founded on the several opportunities he had had of 
observing the passes, from a residence of nearly fourteen years on 
that part of the coast, that the removal of the rock nearly in the 
centre of one of the passes might be effected with very little diffi. 
culty, and at a trifling expense, so as to admit of craft pursuing 
their voyage without the necessity of unloading and reshipping 
their cargoes; and that, in the event of this obstruction being 
removed, the other pass might hereafter be cleared also. For- 
tified by this opinion, the Marine Board deemed the object in 
view of considerable importance to the shipping and commercial 
interests, and recommended to the Government that the passes 
should be accurately surveyed and reported upon by a professional 
officer. 

In September, 1822, Ensign Cotton, of the Engineers, made 
his report to Captain Fullerton, the civil engineer in the southern 
division, by whom it was transmitted to Colonel De Havilland, 
for such further instructions as the information afforded by this 
report might suggest. 



Ceylon and the Main Land of India. 3 

Eatign Cotton's report is a detailed account of the nature of 
the pass, of which the most remarkable passage is this : — 

" The whole length of the dam, from Paumbum on the east 
to Point Ramen on the v/esi, is 2250 jards, or about one mile 
and a quarter. At the east end, the rocks are two or three feet 
above water for the first 300 yards. The rocks on this part bear 
every appearance of having been placed there by art, though they 
are of very large dimensions, some of them being from ten to 
twenty tons. Between the distances of three and eight hundred 
yards from the east end, no rocks appear above water, though, for 
the most part, they are very near the surface. The dhonies pass 
the line of rock at a place near the middle of the opening, which 
is above thirty-five yards broad, and has six feet and a half of water 
over it at high tide, and four at low water. From the opening to 
the west end of the dam, the rocks appear above water for the 
whole distance, at first irregularly and in detached masses, and 
afterwards forming a continued ledge, of five or six feet above 
water. There is a small opeuing in the rocks about four hundred 
yards from the main opening, which however is not used by the 
dhonies. The dam in this part is evidently formed of the natural 
rock, which is in a state of decay, and appears to be of a very 
different nature from that at the east end. The natives say, that 
the east end of the dam is artificial, and that it formerly reached 
across from shore to shore, but was burst by the violence of the 
water, the bottom, in the shallow part, being formed of tiie frag- 
ments. The boatmen brought up some pieces of rock from the 
bottom, which were of the same nature as the stones of which the 
east end of the dam is composed. 

" About three hundred yards from the northern line of rocks, 
the dhonies re-ship their cargo and proceed ; for though there are 
rocks farther north, there is plenty of water on the course they 
steer. I could not ascertain from the boatmen that there was 
either more or less water in the pass at any other season of the 
year, but they all agreed that the weather was more calm in 
January and February, and that the water was so smooth and 
clear in those months, that they could see every pebble at the 
bottom ; there is, therefore, no doubt that that would be the best 
time of the year for any future operations. Indeed, it would be 
very difficult to form any idea of the means it would require to 
remove the rocks without having first ascertained the exact nature 
of the bottom." 

Upon receiving this report, Colonel De Havilland instructed 
Captain Fullerton to proceed to Ramisseram, to examine the 
Pattmbum Passage; and, on the 5th of December, 1822, that 
officer reported the result of his examination to the Inspector- 
General of Civil Estimates. 

B 2 



4 On a Navigable Passage between 

Lieutenant- Colonel Caldwell , having succeeded Lieutenant- 
Colonel Dc Havilland, transmitted Captain Fullerton's report to 
the Government on the 8lh of February, 1823. 

The report of Captain FuUerton is also highly favourable to the 
attempt. He says, '^ From an attentive examination of the Pass 
itself, as well as from information obtained from the pilots and 
boatmen at Paumbum, I am led to conclude that it might be very 
considerably improved at a comparatively trifling expense/' 
Captain FuUerton states at length all the grounds of this opinion ; 
and Colonel Caldwell, in forwarding it, says, "The civil engineer 
judiciously declines pledging himself for the truth of his estimate 
of the expense (one lack and a half of rupees), which he terms a 
^ mere approximation to the probable cost/ at the same time he 
appears to entertain no apprehension of the impracticability of the 
project ; and I am disposed to be persuaded, under a careful con- 
sideration of local and prevailing circumstances, together with the 
several particulars detailed in his report, that he is justified in this 
confidence, — an opinion which I beg at the same time to qualify 
by the further remark, that success will materially depend upon 
having the command of ample means, and the possession of such 
resources as will enable the executive officer to have recourse to 
expedients of a higher class and superior power hi their operation 
and effect than may have been contemplated at the outset of the 
undertaking, and which will possibly considerably increase the 
ultimate expenditure." 

The season of the year when any experiment could be made 
having passed when this report was received, nothing was then 
done ; and all the means and men at the disposal of this Govern- 
ment having been required in succeeding years to bring the war 
in Ava to a successful issue^ the subject has not been since re- 
sumed. 

Having carefully perused and considered all the documents 
upon this interesting subject, I thought it right, some months ago, 
to consult the chief engineer, Colonel Garrard, and the Inspector- 
General of Civil Estimates, Major Sim ; and finding tl^eir senti- 
ments entirely accordant with those of Lieutenant Cotton, Cap- 
tain FuUerton, Colonel De Havilland, and Colonel Caldwell upon 
the practicability of this undertaking, I feel it my duty to recom- 
mend that measures be taken for bringing it to a practical test ; 
and I propose therefore, in addition to the orders already issued, 
that the Inspector of Civil Estimates be instructed to proceed with 
the Company's anchor-boat, and a small schooner to be purchased 
for fifteen hundred rupees, as soon as the season shall open, for 
the purpose of making an experiment in blasting and removing 
a part of the rock. His highness the Prince Muck tar has also 
placed at my disposal, for the same service^ a yacht belonging to 




Ceylon and the Main Land of India. 5 

ibe Nabob, and her services may be accepted, or not, as mav be 
necessar)'. 

Tlie trial can be made at a tiifling expense, and the result 
reported for oiii further consideration and decision. In llie nienii 
time, it will be satisfactory lo the Board to know that the Hunibay 
Government, and especially the superintendent of the marine tiiere, 
Sir Charles Malcolm, enter warmly into this undertaking us one 
of the very greatest importance to the general coasting trade be- 
tween the two coasts, and hove oflFered the use of a cruiser to assist 
in surveying the approaches to the Pass, and in whatever other 
services she can be useful. 

This offer I propose to accept, if the experiment to be made 
b_^- Major Sim shall promise the success 1 anticipate from it, being 
entirely of Colonel Caldwell's opinion, that success \i ill materially 
depend upon the executive officer having the command of ample 
means, and a trial so conducted upon a small portion of the rock 
will speedily set the question at rest. 

The period I regard as peculiarly encouraging to the attempt, 
for if it should hold out reasonable assurance of success, there 
will, i anticipate, be no difficulty in making an arrangement 
with the Zemindar of Ramnad, to whom the land bordering on 
the Pass belongs, and whose country is about to be restored to 
hiin, that the expense shall be defrayed from the surplus of his 
revenues now in deposit, about live lacks of rupees, he being 
allowed the produce of a small toll upon passing vessels in pro- 
portion to his capital expended. In addition to lliis pecmiiary 
tctum, the uliole of iiis country will derive giuat benefit from the 
improvement of the Pas.«, aUo Shevagunga, Tanjore, and ispc- 
ciallv the island of Ceylon, the whole coast of Tinnevelly, llic 
stales of Travancore, and Cochin, and all the Company's provinces 
lip to Bombay. A moderate duty will, therefore, be cheerfully 
paid in return for the delay and hazard avoided, as well as the 
eKpeiiEC and injury actually saved, for I find that tlic expense of 
unloading and itloading a common dhoney auionnts to thirty- 
live rupees at the Pass of Paumbuin each trij), exclusive of tin: 
damage lo the cingo from such an operation performed on the 
open sea. 

Amongst the minor benefits, if it should succeed, may be rec- 
koned an easier and quicker access to the Neilgherries, for I have 
now ascertained, from the repoit of the collector of Malabar and 
the surveying oflicer, Capluiu Ward, and Colonel Cullcn, that a 
good tide river (the ISeypoor near Calient) may even now be na- 
vigated within seventy miles of Ootacainund, the principal sellle- 
nicnt on the Neilgherries, with the prospect of extending the 
natjgation farther up ; and the whole of this route will be per- 



6 Ceylon and India. 

fectly practicable after the pioneers have completed the remaining 
three miles and a half of the Carcoor Pass, upon which they are 
to be immediately employed. This road to the hills opens pro- 
spects of the greatest interest to the Company, as well as to inva* 
lids ; for besides the magnificent forests of timber, both of teak 
and pron (the latter large enough for mainmasts ^to a 74-gua 
ship), growing close upon the boders of the river, gold-dust, 
though as yet found in small quantities, is dug from the sides of 
the mountains, and collected in the streams of a fineness exceed- 
ing British standard gold, thirteen and three-quarter grains^ and 
equal in value to any imported from the eastern islands. 1 have 
gieat pleasure in submitting to the Board the result of an analysis 
of the gold-dust by the assay-master at the presidency ; and 1 
recommend that these specimens be forwarded for the infor- 
mation of the Honourable Court of Directors, together with copies 
of all former papers connected with the survey of this Pass, or 
tending to convey any information of the actual state of the navi- 
gation in Palk's Strait and the Manar Gulf. My own recollection 
enables me to speak with confidence of the practicability of navi- 
gating the former with a ship of a thousand tons within a mile or 
two of the Pass of Paumbum ; and the fact of a small English 
cutter going frequently through the Pass in the year 1799i is also 
within my own knowledge. 

The exact depth of water in the approaches on the southern 
side of the Pass 1 have not been able to ascertain with any ac- 
curacy ; for although the native Serangs who navigate the large 
dhonies to this port are eloquent enough in describing the hard 
knocks they now receive in going through the Pass, the heavy 
expense they incur, and the damage which their cargoes sustain 
in unloading before they can go through, and in reloading on the 
other side, they cannot speak with any confidence of the exact 
depth of water any where but in the narrowest part of the Pass. 
It will be necessary, therefore, that this part be accurately sur- 
veyed before any progress is made in the work, that the removal 
of the rock may keep pace with the depth of water in the approach 
to it ; and it may be fairly inferred, that if the channel through 
the rocks were once well opened, the currents would probably 
clear away the sands. 

In this matter, however, caution and science will be neces- 
sary ; and on these grounds I feel that the experiment cannot be 
in better hands than those of Major Sim, inspector of Civil 
Estimates. 

(Signed) S. R. Lushington. 

November 85, 1828. 




C ? ) 



2. — Major Sim's Rfport, 

Th e distance between Point Rameii, or Toiinetory, in tlie Ramnad 
province, and llie opposite coast of Ceylou, is uboiit sixlj-two 
miles. In tbe intervening space arc situated the islands uf Kamis- 
teram and Stanar, separated from euch'othcr by the bank called 
Adam's Bridge, and from the c ousts of Ramnad and Ceylon by 
llie narrow channels or straits of Panmbum and Manar. 

Tlie Manar channel is about a mile in breadth, and separules 
tlte island of Manar from Ceylon. It is navigable for small 
dhoDJes only, and country boats. The island of Manar, vihicli ii 
a dependency of Ceylon, extends about twenty miles across the 
Stniitd in a north-west direction. At its west end commences 
Adam's Biidge, which runs about thirty miles also in a north- 
west direction to the island of Ramisseram. This island is about 
ten tnilcA in length, and is separated from the coast of Ramnad 
by the channel of Faumbiim, a mile and a quarter in width. 

The Manar chauuel w!is surveyed, under instructions from the 
Ceylon government, by the late Captain Dawson of the Koyal 
Engineers, and Mr. Stewart, the master-attendant of Columbo, 
who describe it as a long, narrow, and very winding channel, 
having about six feet of water in the shallow parts, with the es- 
ception of a bar opposite to its south end, on which there is not 
more than tluee or four feet of water. This channel, from the 
account given of it by the officers who surveyed it, does not 
appear to be capable of any material improvement. 

The bank of Adam's Bridge is a very extraordinary formation. 
It is only about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and consists en- 
tirely of sand, partly above and partly below water, collected 
apparently by the aurf and currents, and unsupported, as far as 
could be ascertained, by rock. The east end of it was pierced 
by the Ceylon oflicers to the depth of thirty feet, and nothing 
found but sand. On each side of the bank, at the distance of 
two and a half or three miles, the sea is six fathoms detp, and 
(juite free from obstructions of every kind. 

There are three principal openings or channels across the bank ; 
one near the island of Manar, called the Tal Mauar Passage ; 
the second eight miles farUier to the west ; and the third about 
eleven miles from die island of Ramisseram, termed the Tanny 
Coody Passage. This last was examined and suneyed on the 
present occasion. It is narrow in the centre, and thirty feet deep, 
with broad curved bars opposite to its two ends, on which there is 
not more than five or six feet of water. The bank between it and 
Ramisseram is entire, and several feet above water. The Tal 
Manar Passage was examined by the Ceylon officers, and re- 



8 On (he SiraUs which separate the Ramnad Province 

sembles exactly that of Tanny Coody, but is not so deep, tlieie 
being only about three feet of water ou its northern bar. The 
intermediate opening was not examined ; but from its appearance, 
as well as from the description given of it by the fishermen who 
frequent the place, there can be no doubt of its corresponding 
very nearly with the other two. It is said to be rather deeper 
than the Tal Manar Passage, but not quite so deep as that of 
Tanny Coody. 

In the vicinity of the Tal Manar and Tanny Coody openings 
the bank is visible above water for several miles, intersected by 
only a few narrow openings, but towards its centre it is chiefly 
covered with water, and very little sand is to be seen, though, 
from the surf breaking exactly on the line of the bank, the depth 
of water cannot exceed a few feel. 

During both monsoons, on the lee side of the bank, to the dis- 
tance of from half a mile to a mile, there are a great number of 
irregular shifting sand-banks scattered about, on which there are 
from two to four feet of water, with passages between them, eight 
or nine feet deep. The weather side, on the contrary, particu- 
larly towards the end of the monsoon, is, in a great measure, clear 
of such banks, and the surf breaks on its shore nearly in a straight 
continued line. When the monsoon changes, tfie strength and 
prevailing direction of the currents change too, and the loose 
sand, of which the shifting banks arc composed, on what was the 
lee side, being stirred up by the surf and sea, is swept by the 
current through the channels, and deposited on the opposite side, 
partly on the bars, and partly on loose detached heaps along the 
bank. These deposits appear to be further increased by the sand 
thrown up on the weather shore by tlie surf, which, as soon as it 
becomes dry, is canied by the wind across the bank into the sea 
on the other side. It was observed, when the wind was tolerably- 
strong, that a continued stream of sand was swept across the bank 
into the sea on the lee side. The beach of Adam's Bridge, there- 
fore, to the distance of about a mile on both sides, is continually 
changing and shifting. On the weather side it is generally clear, 
except immediately opposite to the channels where there are 
always projecting bars, while, on the opposite side, there are many 
loose banks* scattered about, and constantly changing and varying 
in position and extent as the monsoon advances, and according to 
the state of the sea and weather. 

During both monsoons, rather a high surf breaks on the wea- 
ther side of the bank, but the south-west monsoon produces much 
the highest surf, accompanied by a long heavy swell. During 
part of the north-east monsoon, the surf breaks on both sides of 
the bank. 

Dhonies in ballast and fishing-boats occasionally pass through 



from ihc hland of Ci-ylim. 



9 



; openings in fine weallier, but tlie passage is ultcncied with 
some diflicutty and danger, and is not common. 

There is an account, 1 was inrormed, given in the ri'cords of 
the Dutch government of Ceylon, uf a Dutch fleet having, on one 
occasion, escaped from a Danish Heet by passing ihiungh (lie 
channels of Adam's Bridge. If tliia be aulhenlic, cither some of 
ibe channels must have been deeper in former days, of the ships 
must have been of a small si/e. It is probable, indeed, that the 
depth and extent of the openings arc constantly changing fioni 
the effect of the currents and surf, and the quanlity of loose sand 
about (he bank, and that (hey will nol be found of the same size 
for any length of time ; they appeal' to be affected by eveiy chatige 
in llic ueather, the currents and surf, and most likely vary con- 
siderably in different seasons. 

If it be potisible (o obtain any where through the Straits a chan- 
nel sufficiently deep for all classes of ships, it must, I (hink, be 
^ugh[ for in some part of this bunk ; and even here the practi- 
cability of ojiening such a channel, and of keeping it open, is 
very doubtful. A strong double bulwark of stones across the 
bank, extending into deep water on both sides, with a narrow 
opening of one huudred or two hundred feet, might, I think, with 
ion be cspected to accomplish the object. The velocity of 
the current would probably keep a narrow fixed channel of that 
description always suHiciently deep, and sweep olf any sand ihat 
Plight be carried into it eidicr by the sea or by the wind ; and us 
the bulwark would extend into deep wjiter beyond the shifting 
tands and the iiitinence of (he surf, there would be li/fle rink, 1 
tbiuk, of its ends being tilled or choked with sand. The danger 
lit be chiefly apprehended is the formation of bars opposite to the 
euds of the channel, siniihir to what are now found in front of the 
natural openings, particularly on tlie south aide, where, from the 
iiiperiuf slienglh of the soulh-west monsoon and heavy swells, 
taiid-banks are always the largest and most numerous ; but of 
ihti 1 think there would nol be niucli risk : (he quantity of sand 
carried llirougli the channel, from its being beyond the influence 
of tlie surf, would probably not be very great, and as the current 
would be nipid and extend into deep water, it is likely that what 
did pass through It would be dissipated, and disappear. 

The cost of such n woik would, however, be very great indeed, 
and could only be justified by its being considered an object of 
liigh national iiuporLance to have a |)nssage sufficiently deep in 
lime of war for llie largest vessels. In the event of a struggle for 
llie superiority at sea with an European enemy, the advantages of 
luch a channel would be Invaluable; but it is doubtful whether 
tlie benefits which commerce would derive from it, great as they 
uudoubtcdly would be, would warrant an undertaking, the expense 



I 
I 



10 On the Straiti which separate the RamtKid Promnce 

of wbich^ under the most favourable circumstances^ must be very 
large, and the success, from a variety of causes which neither can 
be foreseen nor guarded against, uncertain. 

There remains to be considered the Paumbum Channel or 
Strait between Ramisseram and the Ramnad coast, which affords 
perhaps the only prospect of a moderately deep channel, such as 
would benefit commerce generally, and the coasting trade of India 
in particular, without the necessity of incurring a very large or 
disproportionate expenditure. 

The examination of the Paumbum Passage has accordingly, and 
in conformity with the instructions of Government, occupied the 
whole of the attention and time of the officers deputed for the 
purpose of surveying the Straits, with the exception of a few days 
devoted to the inspection of Adam's Bridge. 

The obstacles to be overcome at Paumbum are a dam or ledge 
of rock extending from the island of Ramisseram to Point Ramen 
or Tonnetory, on the opposite coast of Ramnad, and an irregular 
sand*bank a little to the south of it, the exact situation and shape 
of which will be readily understood from an inspection of the 
accompanying maps, on which the dam and sand-bank, with the 
soundings in their vicinity, are minutely and accurately expressed. 

The dam is 2250 yards in length, and runs east and west. It 
is bounded by two parallel ridges of rock, about one hundred and 
forty yards apart. The north ridge is considerably the highest, 
and is termed the first or great dam. It is in most places visible 
at low water, though nowhere sufficiently connected to prevent 
entirely, at any time, the passage of the water. The line of the 
south ridge or dam can also be distinctly traced at low water, but 
only a few detached rocks on it even then appear above water. 
The whole or greater part of the space between these two ridges 
is filled up by large irregular masses of rock, in various positions, 
but generally in directions nearly parallel to the principal ridges, 
and usually several feet lower than them. 

The continuation of the rock or dam can be readily traced on 
the main land and island of Ramisseram, in its natural position, 
and in uniform layers, having a small inclination to the south, pre- 
serving exactly the same direction, but on both sides several feet 
higher than the dam. The ridges which form the dam are very 
much broken and displaced, and now consist of large flat masses 
of rock, seldom more than two or three feet in thickness. Their 
shattered state, and the break or chasm which they form in the 
general height of the stratum of rock, clearly indicate that the 
island of Ramisseram was at one time connected with the main 
land, and that it has been separated, in the first instance, by the 
sea, during storms breaking over and bursting the chain of rocks 
which joined them ; and, afterwards, by the water undermining 



/rom Ike Island of Ceylon. 1 1 

■od di»p)aciiig the broken fragments. This supposition is con- 
Jinncd bv tlie records of the Pagoda uf Ramiaseram, which relate 
ihal, until the early patt of ihe til'teeiilh ceutuiy, the i&land was 
cootKCled witli the continent by a narrow neck, of land ; and that 
the Sawnij of Runiisseraiu was carried across to the niuiti land 
three times every vear, on particular festivals. During the reign 
of Achoodapah Naig, rajah of Madura, about tiie year 1480, a 
small breacli was made, by a violent storm, iu the laud which 
fontied tlie junction ; but as tliere was no great depth of water on 
it, travellers continued to ciosh on foot iili the lime of his suc- 
cessor, Vessoovaiinda Naig, when tlie bieach was much enlarged 
by a second slurm. The opening was tilled up and repuired, to 
/■cilttate the passage of the pilgrims to the Pagoda of Kumisse- 
laut ; nnd the repairs lasted about ten years, wlien a third hurricane 
destroyed thent, and greatly extended the breach, after which no 
aiteuipt was made to till up the chasm, Since then, every suc- 
ceeding storm has assisted in destroying and undermining the 
dun; and the inhabitants believe that its destruction is still pro- 
reedingf and that fifteen or twenty years make a sensible alteration 
in it. They state that a storm occurs generally once in that period, 
and always displaces and washes away a portion of the rock. 

Besides the ridges of rock which constitute the dam, and which, 
as already stated, are about one hundred and forty yards in 
breadth, rocks and stones, mixed with sand, form the bottom, to 
a distance of about eight hundred yards on llie north side of the 
dam, and two hundred yards on the south side. Beyond eight 
hundred yards, the bottom to the north consists of mud and clay, 
with fourteen feet of water ; and ou the south side, beyond the 
t<xki, it is soft mud and sand. 

From a careful examination of the ground ou the north side of 
the dam, by means of iron probes, and from the appearance of 
tlie beach on the Uumisseram and Uamnad coasts, it is probable 
that no eonnected layers or beds of rock extend f;iriher than one 
Imiidred and tifty or two hundred yards from the dam ; and that 
beyond this distance, the bottom consists of detncheU fragmenU 
uf rock and stones, mixed with hard gravel and sand. The bot- 
tom ou the south side is similar, being composed partly of beds of 
rock and partly of loose fragments. 

The le'lges of rock which form the dam, and the strata on both 
sides, have been pierced and blasted in a great many places, and 
considerable quantities of the rock removed, for Ihe purpose of 
ascertaining its quality and depth, and the nature of the ground 
beueath. The rock of the dam is considerably harder, as well as 
thicker, than what is found on either side, but the whole is soft 
and easily pierced and broken. It appears to be a sandstone of 
a soft description, and generally in au advanced stage of decay. 



l£ Omike Sfntiis wkic\ teparait ti^ Rammad Province 

rarring in thicknee from one and a kail to four feet, and resting 
on a bed of roach srarel. It ts kardest at the surface, and be- 
cooics softer and coarser toxards the bottom : mhich last has 
more the appearance of indurated gravel than of rock. The rock 
to the north and south of the dam seldom exceeds one and a half 
or two feet in thickness, ^^d is m a ^rr decayed state. 

The several strata are found in their natural position on the 
island of Ramisseram and oo the opposite coast ; and a number 
of wclb haling been sunk through them bj the inhabitants^ tlie 
quality and thickness of the rock are easily examined there, and 
correspond exactly with the preceding description. 

In the dam there are tvo channels^ one about five hundred 
yards from the eastern end, which is termed the large channel or 
rificr, and through which alone vessels at present pass. The 
small channel is three hundred yards from the nest end of the 
dams ; it has only three feet of water on it, is very narrow and full 
of lodLs, and b in consequence ouly used by canoes and boats. 
*^rhe principal passage is about fifty yards bioad, and is of very 
irregular depth, with a rocky bottom. In some places it is not 
more than two and a half k^t deep at low water: but there is a 
very winding narrow channel through it« just sufficiently broad for 
tlie passage of a oboney, and nowheie less than five and a half 
feet deep at high water, ordinary tides. This channel, from its 
very winding cour^ and tittle depth of water, is exceedingly in- 
convenient, and occasions great delay and considerable expense to 
vessels passing through it. There is often a rapid current and 
heavy swell, and, unless in vei\ moderate weather, no vessels 
drawing more than four or four aixi a half feet of water venture 
through it ; and in rousih or stormy weather it is often, for several 
dajs, altogethir impas<able. 

'Ilie passage has ah«ays been confined to dhouies and other 
small vessels, chietiv belonging to the native merchants. These, 
when coming Irom the northward, andior eleven or twelve hun- 
dred yards frcm the east end of the dam, in sixteen feel of water, 
soft mud. There ihey unship cargo till their draught of water 
is reduced to four or fi\e feet, according to the state of ihe wea- 
ther, and then drop or warp through the channel, as tlie wind or 
current are favourable or otherwise. After passing the channel, 
they anchor a sec<jiid lime, about four hundred \ards below tlie 
dam, ill twelve feet of water, and re-ship cargo till they draw 
about six feet. They then proceed lo the southward, and cross 
the sand-bank already referred to, about *27CK) \ards below the 
dam, and on which there is not more tliaii se\en kcl ot waler 
when the tide is full. As soon as ihey cross the bank, they 
aiKiior for the third time, to re-ship the remainder of the cargo, 
and then continue their voyage, lliese operations usually occupy 



from (hi Inland of Ceylon. 13 

lliree or four da\s, even under the most fuvoiirable circumstances ;, 
•rbra tbe weatlier is siormv the deteniiou is coiisiderubly 
greater, Tor the pilots will not then undettake [o carry any vessel 
tliiuugh [he passage ; and if this liappeiis dnriug ihe north-east 
oioitsoou, the vessels are obliged to retnuin at anchor, to the 
iKjrth of the dain, in an open situation, exposed tu llic risk of 
being Hrii-en on llie rocks to leeward. Moreover, when ten or 
twelve dlionies arrive together, wbicli is often the case, the lust 
are occasionally detained fur a very coiisideiabte period; ferns 
ihej can only pass when the weather is moderate, and then only 
tbrte or four during one tide, owing to iIil- crookedness of the 
channel, it may happen that the whole number are unable to >;et 
thiough while the wind and sea continue moderate, and the last 
arritals are obliged to wait leu or twelve days longer for another 
intenal of liue weather. 

The expense attending the passage uf the channel, and die 
batik below it, varies frou) ten to fortv rupees, according to the 
size of the vessel j and when the detention and risk of damage are 
taken into the accoutit, the whole must form a heavy burden on 
ibe coasting Iruile of the couiitiy, and greatly retard its extension 
and improvement. 

The removal, tlierefore, of the existing difliculties and obstruc- 
tions, and the improvement of the cliainicl, so as to facilitate tbe 
passage of tbe vessels which now use it, and at the same time to 
tuloiit of its being navigated by ships of a larger size and superior 
description, is an undertaking of much importance, and highly 
deserving of attention. 

Trom the preceding remarks, and from an inspection of the 
chart, it will be seen, that the removal of the rock which obstructs 
die channel, (hough liiat alone would be an improvement of much 
value, would not remove the whole of the difficulties at present 
experienced in navigating the Pauinbum Channel ; for after pass- 
ing through the rucks, there still remains a sand-bank to be 
crossed, on which there is not more dian seven feet of water at 
high-water, ordinary tides. Tbe removal of this bank, it is to be 
feared, may prove a very difficult part of the undertaking; at all 
(venis, the success of any measure adopted for the purpose is 
much rnoie uncertain than if rock formed the obstruction, for 
where that is met with, its removal can always be calculated on 
uith cerlaintv, though the e.\pense may in some cases be great. 
Tbe bunk, it is probable, consists chiefly of the earth and sand 
which composed the narrow neck of land that formerly connected 
the main land and island of Kumissemm, and of the sand washed 
out of the deep channels bcneadi, and to the south of the dam, 
1 currents over it and through its openings. On the 



14 On the StraitM whiA nparaU tte Ramnad Pnnmce 

breaking up of tbe stratum of rock which formed the junction, 
the loose smnd on which the rock rested, mud which was protected 
by it, would, on being uncovered, be swept awaj by storms and 
by the rapid currents flowing through the openings and interstices 
among the broken fragmenti. Time currents, after passing tbe 
rocky barrier and reachii^ the open space to the south, spread and 
lose their velocity, and being at the same time met by opposing 
currents from the east and south-west, the sand washed from 
among the rocks is deposited in the place now occupied by the 
bank, where the water is comparatively still and smooth, being 
protected to the north by the dam, and on the south side by a chain 
of small islands. 

Tbe stream through the principal opening is eitremely -rapid at 
times ; and as soon as it escapes from tbe rocks, and reaches the 
soft sandy ground, it has, as will be seen, scooped out for itself a 
deep and extensive channel, to the distance of upwards of a mile 
and a half. Tbe sand from this channel, thus thrown up and 
deposited at its sides, and also to tbe southward, where the stream 
by spreading and meeting with opposing currents loses its rapidity, 
has no doubt contributed to tbe formation of the bank. It does 
not appear, however, that this is now subject to any material 
alterations or changes ; the pilots state, that the depth of water 
has not altered within their memory, as far as they can judge ; 
and the irregularity of the soundings, which often vary from one 
and a half to two feet in a very short distance, together with the 
quality of the bottom, show Uiat the sand is not frequently shift- 
ing as at Adam's Bridge. Nor does there seem to be any reason 
for considerable changes. The bottom of the sea to the north 
is either rock or clay, and the currents from that direction ap- 
pear to bring very little sand \iith them, for the water, during 
the north-east monsoon, is usually clear and free from mud or 
sand. Storms may produce material changes, and probably do ; 
but whether these are permanent or not, there are no means at 
present of ascertaining. 

A careful and attentive examination of the whole of the chan- 
nel, between Paumbum and Point Ramen, suggests the three fol- 
lowing plans for its improvement : — 

Ist. The present principal opening through the dam may be 
cleared of the rocks which obstruct it, and straightened, without 
increasing its depth. 

2dly. The same opening may be deepened to eight and a half 
or nine feet at high water, ordinary tides ; or another channel may 
be opened, of the same depth, in some other part of the dam, if 
considered more expedient. Or, 

Sdly. A channel, twelve or fourteen feet deep at high water. 



ffora tlte Itland of Ceylon. 15 

mi; be formed, either through the dam or through the projecting 
poiut of land oji the Ramnad coast, at the distance of about two 
miles weal of Point Hamen. 

1. From the description that has alread)) been given of the chan- 
nel through which the dhonies now pass, it will be evident that 
much difficulty and delay must have arisen from the crooked and 
winding shape of the channel. There were several turns in it, 
and one in paiticular where the current is the strongest, which 
increased the difficulty very much ; and frequently, when the 
weatber was rough, interrupted the passage entirely for several 
days at a- time. It will be satisfactory to Government I o know 
that these obstructions have been all removed by the small work- 
ing party which was authorized to be employed for the purpose 
of assisting in the examination and survey of the passage, and 
the channel rendered quite straight, and also a little deeper than 
it was formerly. Dhouies now pass through it quickly, using only 
one warp instead of three or four, as they were obliged to do 
before the rocks were removed ; and one or two keeled vessels, 
drawing about six feet of water, have sailed through. This alone 
is a very considerahte improvement, for it will prevent much of 
the detention to the north of the dam, which has hitherto been 
unavoidable, and was always attended with danger; and will at 
the same time admit of vessels passing through, drawing a little 
more water than formerly, by enabling them to pass at high water 
when the tide is <]uite full. The party continues at work iu the 
channel, and may be expected still further to improve it before 
the work is stopped by the monsoon. 

2. The second plan, namely, opening a channel eight or eight and 
a half feet deep through the rocks, may be accomplished, I think, 
with most ease and Itasl expense, at about thirlecn hundred feet 
from the west end of the dam, where, it will be observed from the 
chart, there i* seven and a half and eight feet of water, near the 
main dam on the north side, and within one hundred yards of it 
on the south side. The quantity of rock, therefore, to be removed, 
to obtaiu a chaiiuel of that depth, would not be very great, while, 
in its removal, niuch comparative facility would be experienced, 
in consequence of there being very little current or swell to inter- 
rupt or retard the woik. For the main dam at that place is 
tolerably compact and entire, and there is consequently very little 
current in its vicinity. By allowing a part of the maiu dam to 
remain till the last to obstruct the current and swell, and by cora- 
pleling the rliamu-l on both sides before its removal, tlie greater 
])artion of the work would be performed in comparatively smooth 

' ch is of very great consequence in blasting and weighing 
le narrow part of the channel would also then be very 



16 Om Ike St rails triuA teparaU ike Ramuad Province 

short, not cxceediog one huudred and fiftj or two hundred jards 
in lengthy which would be a great adiantage to vessels. 

Tlie objections to it are, that the anchorage and channel would 
be more exposed to the strength of the wind and swell during 
the iK>rth-east monsoon than the present channel, which is sheU 
tered, in some degree, bj the west end of Ramisseram ; and being 
farther removed from the eastern shore, the pilots would have 
more difficultv in communicating with vessels, and affording them 
assistance in stomiv weather. 

On the south side of the dam there b a projecting point of the 
saud-banL between the proposed place and the deep channel op- 
posite to the principal opening, on which diere is not more than 
from five and a half to six and a quarter feet of water at low 
tide. If this were to remain in its present state, vessels, after 
getting through the channel during the north-east monsoon, would 
be obliged to pass round the head of it in a direction across tlic 
current, \«hich would evideutlv be attended with considerable 
difficulty to dhonies and country craft But as this pomt of the 
bank is nearly in the direction which the stream through the new 
channel would take, it would, I have not the slightest doubt, be 
entirely swept away on the opening of the channel, for it seems to 
owe its exbtence to tlie absence of any strong current or stream in 
that part, in consequence of the compact quality of the dam there. 
The only real objection uhich I can perceive is its greater dis- 
tance from the shore, and consequently greater exposure to the 
viind and swell during tlie north-east monsoon. 

To deepen the present channel to the same extent would be a 
much more tedious and difficult undertaking. There, it will be 
seen, the shallow water extends to a much greater distance to the 
northward, for at six hundred yards from the dam the depth is only 
six and a half feet at low water. To obtain a channel of the de- 
sired depth, it would be necessary, therefore, to excavate and deepen 
not less than seven or eight hundred \ards in length ; while, at the 
former place, tlie distance does not exceed two hundred or two 
hundred and fifty yards. I'he difficulty of the operation also 
would be increased in a verv great degree bv the distance from the 
dam, the heavy swell which often prevails, and tlie rapidity of the 
currents. These causes would retard the progress of the work 
very greatly, and raise the expense proportionally, for wliere there 
is a heavy swell or rapid current, it is impossible either to blast 
or weigh the rock. 

A large proportion of the space to be deepened, it is true, does 
not appear to consist of solid rock, but of fragments of rock and 
stones firmly fixed in sand or gravel, and covered willi weeds. It 
is probable, from the appearance of the adjoining beach and 




/rom (he Island of Ceylon. 17 



lind, as has been already observed, that no large masses of lock 
would be found at a greater distance than one hundred and fifty 
or two hundred yards to (he north of the dam, and that beyond 
tbal line the bottom consists of small pieces and frngments of 
rock, carried there originally by the current, and now firmly fixed 
in hard gravel and sand. These, generally, it would be unne- 
cessary to blast, as, it is presumed, they are not too large to be 
weighed entire ; but still much difiiculty and inconvenience would 
be experienced in loosening and removing them, in an exposed 
situation, with a heavy swel), and in five or six feet of water. The 
bottom appears to be too compact and rough to be cleared and 
deepened by dredging, or by any similar means procurable in this 
country. A diving-bell sufficiently large to admit of two or three 
men working within it, with short iron crows and pickaxes, might 
be employed with great advantage, and would be higldy useful. 
Divers, of whom there are great numbers in the vicinity, might 
also be used to assist in loosening the fragments with the same 
instruments, and afterwards in raising them into boats or cata- 
marans, either with the hand or with windlasses, as circumstances 
might require. An operation of this kind, subject too, as it would 
be, (o frequent interruptions from rough weather, would evi- 
dently be very tedious and expensive, and could not be completed 
probably in less than two or three years. But of its success I 
diink there is no reason to entertain any doubt, and it certainly 
would be. a vast improvement. It would be more convenient and 
useful than a channel of the same depth at any other place ; and 
there would be this advantage attending the plan, that to whatever 
extent the improvement might be prosecuted, whether continued 
to its full accomplishment or stopped at any intermediate stage, 
no part of the work, if judiciously conducted, would be thrown 
' away or prove useless, but all that might be performed would, in 
some respect or other, be beneficial. 

The only objection is the expense, which would be at least 
three limes as great as the cost of a similar channel at the place 
already mentioned. 

The advantages to be derived from an eight and a half or nine 
feet channel through any part of the dam would be very impor- 
tant. Many of the smaller dhonies would be able to pass through 
at once without any detention, and the inconveniences and delays 
now experienced by the larger vessels would be greatly reduced. 
They would have to unship a comparatively small portion of their 
cargo, and when sufficiently lightened, would be able to pass 
through in almost any weather, and reach a perfectly safe an- 
chorage, instead of 'being detained in a very exposed and dan- 
gerous situation. 

What effect the improvement of the present channel to the 



IS On the Stniiti irhi.h i'^p'Zr^iie the Ramnad Province 

extent here coiitrmpiated. or the openiog of a new one, might 
have on the satiJ-bank t*.) tne south of the dam. it is impossible 
to forelel : but that a coD<uierabie change would be produced 
appears to me verv probable ; au-i if the increased stream and 
cuiTenta VI ere taktrii aiivantatie of. and iudiciouslv directed, it is 
not unlike I V that the pa<:*ase across the bank might be consider* 
&bl\ iiee|>eiicii. But tin? forms no neces^arv part of the plan now 
under consiiicration, though, in the event of its being adopted, this 
branch oi the subject ou^ht to be carefully attended to ; for 
without a vt 17 material change in the sand>bank, the navigation of 
the straits, if tlie chanuc I i> made through any part of the dam, 
mu^t rf main \ery imperfect, and be conAned chiefly, as it now is, 
to country \tsstl>. 

3. Tiie tiiird plan i< to open a channel twelve or fourteen feet 
deep, either thruuiih the Faumbum Dam, or, if it should be thought 
nioie advisable, tlnouph the promontory on the Kamnad coast. 
To form a channel o\ that depth through the dam would be a very 
expen>i\e and exceedinjily laborious undertakiufr. The length of 
the cut would be up\iards of twelve hundred yards, with an average 
depth of four feet to be excavated. The labour of blasting and 
weighing rock, when tiic depth of water exceeds eight feet, is very 
great indeed, and almost impracticable, except in very smooth 
water. At the distance of eight hundred vards from the dam, 
the hwell, (hiring u great part of the year, is very considerable, and 
would add much to the expense and labour of the work, for it 
could only piocced there during very moderate weather, and would 
In; liable to constant and tedious interruptions. 

Of ihr whole. c>\tent, perhaps not more than half would be 
iouinl In c:oii>iist of lock nquiring to be blasted, and the remainder 
ol liiiHUM Ills 111 various sizes mixed with gravel or sand, a con- 
Niihiahlif poitioii <»r \\lii<li, it might be expected, would be swept 
ii\\;i\ liv ihi- # iiiimis, on the removal of the rocky ledges or beds 
mIikIi tu>\\ piiMirt thrill. Still the labour would be very great 
Mini •xliriin l\ trdioiis, and ihe undertaking would require several 
\i .ii'i. piidciiily not h'Ns than live or six, for its accomplishment. 
Hill • \t II il ihc < haniicl were completed to the proposed extent, 
I ihiiilt II \in doiiliUiil whrlher the northern part of it would not 
III' liithli< III till up ai'.aiii. I'ov on the north side, at the distance 
III iiphi III iiiiir liiiiiiiMii \aids from the dam, the current is not, 
I lliink. Miiiiii II iiil^ ..||,,|,}. lo keep such a channel clear, and the 
Inlliii itii> III ihi •.iii'diii linoii^^h the enlarged opening of the dam 
\«tiiild 11 iii« • l\ • \i,n,| 1,1 .s,, i.u»ji .J iii>|;nKv. 

Ihr pl.iii wiMtl.l III-., I ho nuoinpKle \>iihont the removal of part 
ol ilii Niiud h.nik i.» (Ii.> s,,nii, „i the dam, or a considerable im- 
iiini.niiiH •«« Imi I Ml ih« p.iHva::r acio» n. riiis. it has already 
iiiiii .i.iUd. in nitiiiiinii iiiiil,! an\ ciu uuiMances, though I think 




from the tiland of Ceylon. 19 

Ibt tncreaeed quantity of water and force of the etream which bo 
etIeiuiTe an enlargenient in the opening through the rocks would 
produce, would contribute very materially to an; mcBBurcB that 
night be undertaken with that view. 

Though at first sight the bank appears to resemble very mudi 
the bars which are formed opposite to the channels through 
Adam's Bridge, still 1 thitik it is essentially different from them. 
As far as can be Judged, it is permanent, and not liable to shift ; 
■Dd the principal causes which formed it, have, it seems probable 
for (he reasons assigned in a preceding part of the Report, long 
ago ceased (o exist, or at least now act in a very inferior degree. 
The bar* opposite to the channels through Adam's Bridge are 
most extensive on the south side, and are thrown up by the very 
high surf and heavy swell produced by the south-west tnonsoont 
which acts with great force on the south side of the bank. But 
at Paumhum, the space immediately to the south of the dam, 
where the bank is situated, is protected from the violence of the 
south-west monsoon by the range of islands to the south of it, 
which form a complete barrier, and comparatively little swell or 
surf is ever experienced there. Any alteration produced in the 
bank would, in consequence, be the more likely to prove per- 
Btaoent ; and 1 think that the current and stream might be so di- 
rected, by means of stone bulwarks or jetties, as to produce a very 
great improvement. 

But this plan, on the whole, appears to roe much too laborious 
aad expensive, and at the same time attended in several respects 
with too much uncertainty, to be advisable ; and if a twelve or 
fourteen feet channel be considered absolutely necessary, I would 
recommend, in preference, (hat it be opened through the pro- 
montory of the main land. 

In 1814 there was a very severe storm or hurricane at Ramis- 
seram, during which the sea broke over the land in many places, and 
at about two miles from Point Ramen cut a channel completely 
across it. A ledge of rock on the south side of the land was 
destroyed and swept away, and a pit excavated seven or eight feet 
below the level of the sea for a distance of two hundred yards^ 
from the end of which to the north shore the bed of the channel 
u three or four feet above the level of the sea. The gale from 
the northward lasted only about four hours;— had it continued a 
few hours longer from that direction, it is probable that there 
would have been a deep channel formed entirely through (he 
lend, though, most likely, it would not have continued open for 
any length of time, for Uic surf wliich breaks on both shores, but 
particularly on the soulii side, with considerable force, not being 
cuunieracled by a siiflicient rise and fall in the tide, would pro- 
bably, in a shoit time, have filled its ends with sand. 



so On the Straits which separate the Ramnad Province 

The breadth of the land here is seven hundred and twenty-eight 
yards. It coiiHists chiefly of loose sand, with a little soft decayed 
nick mixed with it in some parts^ which is easily broken with the 
hammer and pickaxe. On the north side there is a reef of coral, 
not solid or connected, but in detached masses, and of no great 
breadth, for at four hundred yards from the shore the water is 
fourteen feet deep. On the south side the water deepens very 
rapidly, the depth at one hundred yards from the shore being 
two and a half fathoms. A channel twelve or fourteen feet deep 
might, thorcfore, be cut here with comparatively little difficulty, 
and at u moderate expense ; and being to the south, and entirely 
cloar of the bank beneath the Paumbum dam, the removal of that 
bank, or a paNsa^e across it, would form no part of the undertaking. 
It in prcibabh', however, tliat the channel would not remain open 
without Nome ccnitrivance at its ends to prevent the surf from filling 
them up with sand ; and this would, it is to be apprehended, be 
the most e\|M'nsive and uncertain part of the project. 

The easiest and mo^t likely way to effect the object would, I 
think, be to carry a double bulwark of large stones from both 
chores, in a continuation nearly with the sides of the channel, into 
deep water, beyond the influence of the surf. The ends of the 
channel thus terminating in deep water, it does not appear that 
any cause would exist there to fill thom with sand, for they would 
be lM\\ond the reacli of the surf, and there are no currents likely 
to produce that effect. It is probable that very little sand would 
enter the chamiel, and that whatever did enter would be swept 
uwuy by the current through it, which, at all seasons of the year, 
would lie considerable. The principal danger to be apprehended 
\% the fornnitiou of a sand-bank to the south of the channel, or 
lun-N op|Htsite to its ends, as occur before the natural openings in 
Adam's Hridge. This appix^hension is perhaps not entirely 
without gromids, but if, on the completion of the channel, any 
Hvmptoms of either a bank or bar should appear, I think the 
fonnation might bo entirely prevented by constructing a second 
bulwark of stones in front and }vrpendicular to the ends of the 
first bulwark, at one hundred or two hundred feet from them. 
This narrow o(>cning between the two bulwarks would be swept 
by the south-west mousoi)n and curivnts produced by it, which 
Vroiild most likely keep it always deep and free from sand. On 
the north side there is much less danger of any banks forming, 
for there are none opposite to the Paumbum channels, and the sea 
beyond the rocky ground is clear and free from obstructions of 
every kind. 

Afker fttllj weighing all the adrantages and risks attending the 
of a diannel twelve or fourteen feet deep at this place, I 
are good grounds for considering the undertaking to 



openmgot 




from, ike Island o/Ceylon. 21 

be practicable ; but in deciding on the expediency of adoptina; or 
rejecting it, it is iiecessarv to lake into coiiKideralion the possibility 
of a partial or complete failure, for the project is so entirely new, 
ind so unlike any thing that has hitherto been undertaken in 
lodia, that no comparison can be made with the result of other 
works of (he same liind, and no information, therefore, drawn from 
eiperience ; while, at tlie same time, the nature of the currents, 
ifaeir strength and direction at different seasons of the year, and 
the manner in which they are affected by the opposite monsoons, 
■re all, in a great degree, still to be learnt. 

Respecting the expense of the different projects, from what has 
already been said it will be evident that much uncertainly must 
necessarily exist, and that it ia impossible to form any thing like 
even an approximation to a correct estimate. The expense will 
depend greatly on the seasons being favourable or otherwise ; on the 
exict quality and nature of the ground beneath the surface at the 
place where the channel may be opened ; on the currents, and the 
effect they may have in acceleratmg the operation by sweeping 
away the sand and loose soil when the solid rock is removed, or 
retarding it by producing, in some cases, a contrary effect ; and 
on a thousand other circumstances which it is impossible to foresee, 
and which can only be discovered as the work advances. In the 
present state of our information, a general plan or course of pro- 
ceeding only can be laid down, which will be liable to constant 
changes and modifications ; and whichever of the projects that 
have been suggested may be preferred, it will be necessary to 
leave a great deal to the discretion and judgment of the ofhcer who 
may be entrusted with its execution, not only as to the manner of 
proceeding with the work, but also the means to be used, the 
expense to be incurred, and the extent to which the undertaking 
may be carried with advantage. The following sums must, there- 
fore, be considered as very rough guesses only, which may exceed 
or fall short of the actual cost to a very considerable extent: — 

The plan of opening a channel eight or nine feet deep and fifty 
feet wide through the dam, at about thirteen hundred feet from 
its west end, may be calculated at 70,000 rupees (7000(. sterling), 
and two seasons would probably be required for its completion. 

Deepening the present channel to the same extent cannot be 
estimated at less than l.;iO,000 rupees (15,000f. sterling), and 
probably three years would be required to complete it. 

The practicability of opening a channel twelve or fourteen feet 
through the dam, and of keeping it open, appears to me so un- 
certain, with our piesent knowledge, that it cannot with propriety 
be recommended, and it is unnecessary, therefore, to consider its 
expense. 

Culling a channel through the main land, where the lea made 



29 On the Straits which separate the Ramnad Province 

a breach in 1814^ would cost probably from one and a half te 
three or four lacs of rupees (15,000/. to 40,000{. sterling), ac- 
cording to the nature and extent of the works that might be re- 
quired at its ends to prevent them from tilling up with sand ; and 
mn equal uncertainty of course exists with respect to the time re- 
quired for the performance of that project. 

From a review of the several plans that have been proposed, il 
will appear, I think, that if a channel of eight or nine feet through 
the rocks be required, without reference to the removal of the 
sand-bank to the south, or the improvement of the passage across 
it, the most advisable place for such a channel is at about thirteen 
hundred feet from the west end of the dam. 

If it should be considered expedient to confine the operations 
in the first instance to an eight or nine feet channel, but to keep 
in view the chance of extending the depth afterwards to ten or 
twelve feet, if circumstances and experience should justify the mea- 
sure, it is probable that deepening the present channel would be 
the most desirable and safe way of prosecuting the undertaking. 
Though much more expensive, it is the more certain, and the 
channel would be in the most convenient situation. 

The removal of the rocks which obstructed this channel have 
altered it considerably since it was inspected in last March, and 
in some places the layer or crust of rock which covered its bottom 
has been entirely removed. It is extremely desirable that the 
efiect of one north-east monsoon should be seen on the channel 
in its altered state before any final conclusion is come to respect- 
ing its comparative merits and defects with those of the proposed 
new channel near the west end of the dam. If there is only a 
covering or crust of rock, as there seems every reason to believej 
the rapid current through the channel during the north-east mon- 
soon may, as that is now removed in several places, produce con- 
siderable alterations, not only on the channel itself, but on the 
ground to the north and south of it ; and this it is highly desirable 
to ascertain before the expediency of improving or abandoning 
the channel is decided. 

If a channel of twelve or fourteen feet is considered an object 
of sufficient importance to warrant the attempt, under the un- 
certainty which now exists with respect both to success and ex- 
Tense, and the imperfect state of our knowledge on the subject, 
think the plan of opening a channel across the main land, where 
the sea broke over in 1814, ought to be adopted. 

The best seasons for working, whatever plan is preferred, as far 
as can be judged from the experience of the present year, are 
from the beginning of March to the middle of May, and from the 
end of August to the commencement of the north-east monsoon. 
There are occasional intervals of fine weather in the months of 




Febnisry nd Aagoat, which might also be laken advantage of; 
but more than four or five moDlha in the year cannot be calcu- 
lated on for carrying OD the work with advantage. The sea appears 
to be smoothest, and least affected by currentt, from the begin- 
DiDg of September (o the middle of October, and during that 
penod the improvements to the north of the dam or promontory 
ought to be executed ; for, in the north-east nioiisoon, the water 
(here is generally too rough to admit of the work being prose- 
cuted with much success. Id the months of March, April, and 
May, the rocks to the south of the main dam might be removed. 

'J'W process of boring and blasting rock under water was readily 
learnt by the small party of pioneers employed on the survey, and 
after a little practice was conducted with much success. In blast- 
ing the rock previously to removal, jumpers, six inches iii dia- 
meter*, were generally used and found most etKcient. They were 
worked by three men at a time, on a low raft formed of two large 
canoes, lashed together, and covered with loose planks. After a 
great number of experiments with different quantities of gun- 
powder, charges of from four to six pounds were thought to pro- 
duce most eSect, and were usually employed. The ruck was bored 
quite through, the object being to separate and displace the frag- 
ments completely, and the charge v/^as covered with gravel and small 
pieces of rock and coral. The gunpowder was hred in the usual 
manner by means of tin tubes. The large fragments were weighed 
by means of a common country boat, furnished with n windlass, 
dtrrick, and tackle. Slings, made of strong rope, were placed 
round the fragments by divers ; to these the tackle was made fast, 
and in this way pieces of rock, three tons in weight, were occa- 
sionally raised into the boat. The apparatus was very imperfect, 
die flat boat and the small supply of timber sent from Madras, for 
this part of the operations, having been lost on the way down to 
Ramisseram; nud the only substitutes procurable on the spot 
being a clumsy country boat and some drift limber. The small 
pieces of rock were brouglit up with the hand by divers. 

The most convenient and expeditious apparatus for weighing 
and removing the fragments of rock in fixture, would perhaps be 
a lai^e flat boat, partly decked, furnished with a double set of 
derricks, windlasses, and tackles, so arranged as to be used at the 
same time on opposite sides or ends of the boat. To save the 
necessity of raising the fragments into the boat, which was found 
very difficult, and attended with much delay, there ought to be 
Ihiee or four double canoes with decks, to receive the rock, and 
convey it to the places where it is to be deposited. There would 
then be no necessity for changing the situation of the weighing- 



124 On the Straits whicli separate the Ramnad Province 

boat when once placed, till all the broken rock within its reach 
was removed^ which is a point of much importance, for it was 
found a very troublesome and dilatory operation to fix the boat in 
the right spot when there was much current. 

The canoes of the boring rafts ought to be decked, to prevent 
them from filling with water and sinking, which they are very apt 
to do when there is any considerable swell. 

A diving-bell, which might be made at Madras, would be of 
great use for examining the bottom, and fixing the most conve- 
nient places for blasting. The divers, it was soon found, could 
not be safely trusted with this ; they usually directed the jumper 
to the first rock they happened to meet with, and freq^uently caused 
the same rock to be bored several times, which occasioned the loss 
of much time and labour, and left the rock imperfectly broken, 
and in a very unfit state for further blasting. Much depends on 
the selection of the points for boring and blasting, and a diving- 
bell would enable the officer in charge of the work to regulate 
this part of the operation himself. 

When the water was tolerably smooth, and the current not 
strong, very little difficulty was experienced in blasting and weigh- 
ing rock at the depth even of eight feet, but when there was any 
considerable swell, or a rapid current, it was impossible to pro- 
ceed with the work : hence the great advantage, in respect both 
to time and expense, in selecting such a situation for the channel 
as will afford smooth water for the longest periods. 

In conclusion, I beg to observe, that it would afford me much 
satisfaction if Government, previously to adopting any of the pre- 
ceding plans, or coming to any final resolution on the subject, 
would be pleased to forward to the Honourable the Court of 
Directors, for the purpose of being submitted to experienced 
civil engineers in England, copies of the charts of the straits, and 
of all the information which has been collected during the late 
survey. The improvement of the navigation through the Manar 
Straits is an object of so great value and importance to Indian 
commerce, and so much depends on the choice of place and on 
die means to be used, that every precaution ought to be taken to 
obtain the best possible advice on the subject ; and a delay of a 
year or two is of little consequence, when compared with the ad* 
vantages which might possibly be derived from the opinions and 
advice of engineers in Europe who have been employed on similar 
undertakings. 

If this suggestion should meet with the approval of the Right 
Honourable the Governor in Council, I would further beg to 
propose, that the papers should be entrusted to the care of Captain 
A. T. Cotton, who, it is likely, will be obliged to proceed to 
England in January for the benefit of his health, and who, having 




finm {ht ItlandcfCeytoH. 85 



been employed at Faumbam during the whole of the survey, tnd 
baTiog bad the immediate charge and direction of the experiments, 
will be able to afford information on many points which cannot be 
uifliciently explained by either charta or reports. 

Pending the reference to England, 1 would recommend that 
the observations on the passage should be continued, and that 
the present party of pioneers, increased to, fifty men, with some 
ship lascars and divers, should he employed under the direction 
of an engineer officer in the improvement of the present opening, 
and in making some experiments on the bank to the south of it. 
Whatever the final decision may be respecting the more exteiinive 
improvements, the labour of such a party canuot tail to he very 
beneficial, while the expense would be inconsiderable, and much 
valuable infwmation would be obtained, which would be highly 
useful in the event of the prosecution of the work afterwards on 
an extended scale. 

It is due to Captain A. T. Cotton and Lieutenant F. Cotton, 
lo menlioo the valuable assistance offered by them in the pcr^ 
formance of the duty at Paumbum, 8lc. 

(Signed) Sim, 

iMprclor-Gnuml of Cieil Eilimalei. 



U. — Journal of a Voyage up the Massaroony in 1831. By 
William Hilhouse, Esq., of Demerara, Corresp. Menib. 
R.G.S., London. Communicated by the Author. Read 23d 
December, 1333. 

In 1801, an expedition was sent from Demerara up the Esse- 
quibo, to communicate with the Portuguese, through their post 
on the Rio Branco ; and to endeavour, if possible, to stop the 
Indian slave-trade, which had been heretofore carried on by 
the Caribisce in that vicinity, uhence both Demerara and the 
Rio Branco had before received their supply of Indian slaves 
Dr. Hancock, since well known in the scientific world, was the 
most ostensible individual employed on that mission ; and it 
is much to be regretted that he has furnished us with no public 
account of his observations on his interesting journey. His 
route, it is true, had been several times traversed before, as it 
has been since ; but it was desirable, if possible, to get a few 
points of latitude and longitude to determine, at any rale, the 
course of the Essequibo. And the rough map which he com- 
piled of his progress, only gives comparative distances, and laj-s 
down the pomts of entrance of the great tributaries ; from which 
it appears, that, after the junction of the Rippanoony, the Esse- 



96 Voyage up the Maaaroony in 1831. 

quibo takes a south-east direction, and is supposed to rise in the 
mountains, about the longitude of the Comantine river. 

We have heard also of expeditions from Cayenne and Surinam, 
which have penetrated considerably to the south*west of those 
colonies ; and, according to report, one at least has reached the 
Amazon in that direction, by some of its northern tributaries. 
But we are still without any information as to the source of the 
Essequibo, and its subsequent course to its junction with the 
Rippanoony ; M'e only know that the central chain of mountains 
is very low at the intersection of the Rippanoony, and afterwards 
rises to a considerable elevation ; the river being obstructed by 
numerous falls of great magnitude. Here is a virgin tract, there- 
fore, for the discoveries of future travellers, the more interesting 
as connecting the subject of the following pages with the French 
researches ; and the accomplishment of which will erase a terra 
incognita from the maps of geographers, and unravel the mysteries 
of the unknown interior of Denierara. 

The Cuyuny river has also long been ascertained to have a di» 
rection nearly parallel with the Oronoque, or W. by N., till it 
has passed the district of the Missions; but after that, its course 
is enigmatical. On consulting the maps and observations of 
Humboldt, I was immediately con\inced that the Massaroony 
must be the natural drain of the intermediate space between the 
Cuyunv and the Essequibo ; and by giving it a south-west direc- 
tion, it would intersect that undiscovered region the £1 Dorado, 
or Great Golden Lake of geographical fable. From repeated 
inquiries amongst the Accaway Indians, whom 1 knew to be con- 
stantly traversing the space between the coast and the Amazon, I 
was convinced that no lake existed in all that space : but all 
reports agreed in describing the inhabitants of that region as the 
most savage and iincouiteous, and that they refused to allow any 
traveller to enter their territories. This was the received opinion 
of all the old settlers whom 1 consulted on the subject ; and I 
gave up the idea of penetrating in that direction for some time. 

During the progress of my researches after the native cottons, 
however, 1 fell in with many stragglers of diflerent nations, and 
amongst others the Attaraya, the very people who were reported 
to be so inimical to strangers. By interpreters, 1 ascertained from 
them, that they mingled indiscriminately with the other tribes of 
the Accaways, by whom they were described to be half Accaway 
and half Caribisce; and that the Caribisce nation had quitted 
that quarter, and emigrated eastward, in consequence of which 
there was no longer any war amongst the Indians in this direction. 
I determined, therefore, immediately to take advantage of diis 
peaceable intenal, to explore the Massaroony : and the short dry 
season of 1830 saw me start on this expedition. 




Voyagtvpti^Mattaroem/wlBSl. Vt 

I diall not, however, dilate on the circunuUneei of this my 
Gnt trip. The ahort dry aeasoa finitfaed fo abruptly, that I wu 
obliged to return much iiooner than I intended. But I made a 
■up of the course of the river, as far as I went, sufliiciently accu- 
rate to prevent any future miitconceptions ; and determiaed lo 
renew my reaearches in the ensuing long dry Beaton. 

It was of great importance, in my second eicursioo, to procure 
one or more companions, who would lighten the cost and authen- 
ticate my narrative; and Thomas Teschmaker, Esq., a proprietor 
af Wakenaam, having thus Lindly joined me, he bore the half of 
myeipentea, and we started together. 

It may be interesting to some to Itnow the equipment neceasaiy 
for a two months' eacunion up one of the mountain- torrents of 
Guiana. Ours cost about ISO/. sterling, in the following articles : 
a canoe, five feet broad and forty long, with washboards and a 
quarter-deck ; ten dozen knives, one dozen cutlasses, six axes, ten 
pieces of salempore, ten pieces of calico ; fish-hooks, of all 
sizes, about five pounds ; beads, thirty pounds ; needles and pins ; 
nuors and looking-glasses, two dozen of each ■ twenly pounds of 
gunpowder, ten bags of shot, and flints ; scissors, one dozen ; and 
four guns. Our crew consisted of an Accaway captain and 
twenty-two of his followers — nineteen in ihe canoe, and three in 
a small hunting craft : their wages for the trip were a piece of 
salempore, a cutlass, and four knives, each; with a gun and a 
piece of calico for the captain. We gave also a gun lo our 
pilot. 

The wages of the crew we left at the post ; * onr agreement being 
for Ihe whole trip, and not by the clay — to take us wherever we 
chose to go, and bring us back to the post. This plan should 
always be pursued, as there ts then no temptation to ill behaviour 
or pillage. Forty gallons of rum, a keg of sugar, another of salt, a 
jar of butter, half a dozen hams, a bag of rice, a barrel of biscuit, 
one dozen casiripe, with pickles and other condimenis, five dozen 
of wine, five dozen of porter, ten gallons of brandjr, with one cwt. 
of salt fish, were our munitions de bouche. 

We halted the first night, to increase our stock of bread, at 
Caria island, about three hours above the post. It is absolutely 
necessary to start with at least one cwt. of cassada bread, well 
dried, as it is a chance if any more can be procured for a week after- 
wards. At Caria island commences the distinguishing feature of 
the Massaroony — an innumerable string of islands, dividing the 
river into from five lo ten different channels, without intermission, 
for fully a week's journey ; in which space, the two banks of the 



fj\«-f fcf» b*.ii?*-»-r^ 'Ml'.*: Visjiijt i-.infiiit-. aiic oiif bul seldom. 
Ciifi« i»M oiJ«^ « X>uicL pM<! : a&Q fi?^er«) ptaniBiians vere for- 
it^ri\ ou iiA kc jac^rut imuLt cc lue me?, but tbe onk traces of 
tU«riii ii'^M Mi ki*: a f*rw c^cua t*eefr on tbe easl diore. Above 
Caiia, *ju a bUiaii iblauo. it a Canbi^ct bellieineiit of one fmmilT, 
Miji'jj jt tiit fju\\ fjut uf tbat uaiJOD dcv left on the MassarooDj. 
Heft; b«:|ciij iLe ra|/id», ibe faurJi <.■} Kiiucfa. ^^ arimambo, is the 
UiUhl ftrujarkabie lu thib dai's piogreM. Tbe riieris here three 
Of f«/ui iijjltrb bf'yad; and cociinues Xiearlv the same breadth the 
t*ti«/l« l«:ii^tli of tl«e archipelago. At Wahinambo. a lar^ge opeu 
bpa':«: ill tiie ctutfe of the river has, in the rains, the appearance 
ol a Mk%i laLe, aiid in tlie dr>- season, that of a nigged rockj plain. 
'I lit: iiiaiiiHrf we abceiided thib, and all the other rapids that were 
UiU btiofi;^ to paddle up, ib a)> follows. The rapids do not fall in 
oih: bliett over a level ledve, but force tliemi>eU*es through a nutn- 
Ifer of libhureb, large intermediate blocks of granite dividing the 
dilli'ieiit bliootb of the fall. At the base of these blocks there is 
an f'ddy, into which the canoe is forced, where she becomes sta- 
tiouuiy, having no current cither way; the crew now spring upon 
\\\v ioi:k, and wade aM far up as they can find footing ; by means of 
a lon|j; vi\\i\ hloiit ronr tli(;y then pull the canoe or coorial into one 
ol \\iv. bliootM of the i'aiii where there is water enough to float 
hi I, uhil liy niiiin Hliriigtli haul her up the ascent; they then take 
lii:i out of ilii^ ruiii'ni, und lay her stern against the top of the 
iiidt, hiHii wlitiiiit Ixittoni they have just mounted, with her head 
iipjil up tlir hlifuni; tuid nt a given signal, they spring into her, 
•Hill, piillniK willi nil tlu'ir mi^ht, endeavour to cross diago- 
iiiill\ ilir ililli'ii'iii iiiiicuts (ill they get into another eddy. This 
in iliii liinif nl \\\v. ^irutcst (lunger in ascending. If they are not 
iiiluit In bfi/iii^ thru piulilirs, tho head of the canoe is taken by 
lilt' iMiirnI, uuil hhr diill.s hioadsido down the fall, where she 
inii&l lilt nilallihlN npM*t. If jtho is not strong-handed, she cannot 
bh Ml lhit I itui'iil*! iilioxr, and in crossing thoni goes down the fall 
bli in Itiiiinoit ; loi ilie blieuni ruiKs» ut most of the rapids, ten 
tii Iwrhr- iiiih 1 iiii Ihiiii. and bul iW the detached rocks which 
mubii ihi) idt(h-«, llu'ie \\\mld he no wa\ of pa:(sing them but by 
limkliiii iiloii^ llie «)iiMe. NN e weie se\erul limes reduced to this 
lliH«>k>ll.\, x^huli iii.ikev ihe pa^^Ai^e \ery tedious. 

lu tiiii lh«l d.i\ <« |\t\uiie\ we asevuJt^l eis^ht rapids: and went 
\i\^l l\« liu^ \\ol h.iiikt hi\\»u.i\'kiu^ for ihe nr>l time on a wooded 
U^\l^\ b^lwi'i'U lli\' Viee^iu uii\i \\e>(H«(vka\ tails. 

rhi\m)&l«\^ul \\\\' wh\»U' K'x^ui'fce \»i i".e Mjvkuwnv, palms of all 
VlU^U 4iv n4i\e, 11 i^ oidwuU, lhcie:o:e. to procure leaves 
VU\^^mI^ ^v* \k»\\i ^ hul. A\\s\ we ui.iov ,1 leii»^viur\ Unl of the 
«^\(mv Mil \^* v*^u %mi\s\ whuh \\v us»ik up rw jiv purpi.'se : we 
\M Ms«^ UuU vUv^A hv'wv\vi> ^iAlb\tvuiU ^^wt Co tee hieivy pelting 




t oyage vp the Massaroony in 1831. 29 

rain ihat now and ihen fell ; 1 would therefore rccaaimend oiled 
jjik hammock-curtains, in adiiition. As to our Intiians, provided 
they could keep their fire aliglil, lliey cared little for the rain ; but 
il" ii was BQ heavy as lo put out the lire, they called loudly for a 
dnun to comfort them. Whilst ascending the rapids, it is proper 
to pve them three, or perhaps four, drams a day, or they get 
chilled from being so much in the water; but woe to all bands if 
they get drunk I In tlie still water, a dram at starting, and one at 
coming in, is enough, and ought to be the allowance stipulated 
in the outset. 

At seven the next morning we started again ; halted at Ara- 
matta, a small Accaway settlement on the webt shore, to break- 
fast; and at night slept at Cupara, another settlement on the 
same shore. This day we only passed three falls, there being a 
considerable space of still water, where the current was not more 
than two and a half knots, and we thus made good progress ; our 
average way was from twenty to twenty-five miles per day. 

The Indians always eat the moment they awake. In the morn- 
ing at six, our coffee was made, and the pepper-pot, in large tin 
kettles, was warmed, the wives of our captain and pilot taking the 
cooking department. It must always be inculcated, whatever the 
secondary object of the journey may be, that the first is to secure 
an ample supply of food at every opportunity. Throughout this 
expedition we never refused to purchase cassada bread or barba- 
cotled game and fish, though frequently overloaded with both. 
The Indians, provided they eat early, do not require a regular 
meal till evening; but they continue, the whole of the day to 
drink, at intervals, draughts of pyieoree, a gruel of cassada crum- 
bled into cold water ; and in this way such a quantity of bread is 
drunk, in addition to what is eaten, that you can hardly have too 
large a stock. 

Our day's jouniey commenced at seven, and ended at three, 
four, or five, just as we happened lo find a convenient resting- 
l^ace. A lai^e bold sand, with a clump of trees, was our favourite 
bivouac ; here you have room for a walk, good bottom for bath- 
ing, and poles to hang hammocks: if these are found, I would 
always prefer bivouacking, in fine weather, to sleeping in the 
houses of the Indians, where you are generally poisoned with 
smoke and bitten by fieas and chigoes. 

Our third day's journey brought us to the fall of Tepayco ; the 
route being, from Cupara, still water, except one trifling rapid. 
This being an excellent fishing and hunting station, we halted for 
half the next day. At night, we took a very tine lowlow, and 
the next morning a number of peri, a pacou, and several feathered 
game, mamoes, pigeons, and maroodies. Tepayco is the first 



50 Voyage up the Mauaroony in 1831. 

fall of the second great ledge of granite; and our third day brought 
us over this to Sapeera, the foot of the third or Caboony ledge^ 
where we slept. 

Wc here fell in with a party of Accaway Indians, who were 
going down to receive presents. They had been upset in the 
Sa|M*cry fall, and had lost everything but their hammocks. They 
seemed to make very light of their accident when we assured 
them that they had time enough to return, and get a fresh supply 
of brcnci before the presents were given out. 

We bought of these Indians several bundles of hai-arry : this is 
a papilionaceous vine, bearing a small bluish cluster of blossoms, 
pr<Miucing a pod about two inches long, and less than a goose- 
quill, with small grey beans, about ten in number. Its leaf is 
iiJMHit ninr inches long, being a central stem, with four spear- 
pointed Iraflets on each side, two inches long, and one at the 
nprx. 'i'lie root, which is of slow growth, is, when full grown, 
tinrc inches in diameter; it contains a white gummy milk, which 
when expreNNcd is a most powerful narcotic, and is commonly 
used by the Indians in poisoning the water to take the fish. They 
beat it with heavy sticks till it is in shreds like coarse hemp ; they 
then till a cooriul with water, and immerse the hai-arry in it; the 
water heeomeH immediately c»f a milky whiteness, and when fully 
sutuiated, they take the coorial to the spot they have selected, and 
throwing over the infusion, in about twenty minutes every fish 
within its inllnenee rises to the surface, and is either taken by the 
hand or shot with arrows. A solid cubic foot of the root will 
poixMi an ueie of water, oven in the falls, where the current is so 
strong. The tisih are not deteriorated in quality, nor do they 
laint nioiv rapidly \\\\n\ thus killed, than by being netted or 
olhriwiKe taken. The paeou is genci ally taken with hai-arry, in the 
lollowni^ manner: the Indians select a pint of the falls', where 
the Me\n* i« plenlilid. and traces an* \i$ible of the pacou, which 
is gieKMiious. luivinj; laieh ftd. Thev thtn inclose this place 
Milh a \\M ol' Kn^se stones, a loot abo\e the surface of the water, 
leA\ni}i two or thiee spaces, about ten iWl broad, for the fish to 
Alltel ; for these spaces llu\ pu^urt* pair\s or wootlen hurdles, 
aihi about two houi> betoiv d;n break ihe^ pixKved silently to stop 
\hp a|ieitmvs \uih them The fish aix* thus inclosed in a tern- 
|HM{ii\ |SMuK whuh u in>)vcle«i at oax break, ana if ihey are louud 
h* U» in sullKicni namlvr lo pax toi the hai-a:M. the \ commence 
liMliUiit ^^' I hA^'<' )u thi> \\a\ t;;k<-tu sii less i:un an hour, two 
kliiubv^i and >«ew«t\ pji^vu, ,-i\ciaj^s;'.ji >e\ta |vn:iK!s uciiiht, with 
*^W^^ iMiwdtt^i xivijjhi o! ,;!'.*; i'>*-. i nc ;;>h :::iis uUu x« split. 



• %»*<>«Mv «\-ik\«««.-.\ cfcV* N '. 'T jNw.'* JL^i C'^-r 




Vffyag* up the Manarow^ w 1631< 31 

nited, uid dried on the rocki ; aad is ao\A at one guilder a fiih, 
irlwD cured. Travellers should never be without a few bundle* of 
lliif root when mounting the falls. 

The next dajt we reached the Caboony creek, and bivouacked 
en a unall rocky island at its mouth. The Sapeei; fall is a diffi- 
cult one, but not to be compared with that of Caboony, which 
ii full thirty feet high, in four different ledges. It cost us an 
hour's hard labour to get over a space of one hundred yards. On 
nitering the Caboony creek, where we intended to recruit our siock 
of bread, we found a specimen of the migratory habits of the Acca- 
ways ; there were at least, in the preceding March, two hundred 
Indians, with a good stock of provisions, here ; now, the place 
was completely deserted, and we could get do bread but by going 
a day's journey up the creek. 

.At Ibis place we were obliged to unload the canoe, and haul 
her up light over the Pirsmappuh fall, as she would otherwise 
have filled from the steepness of the shoot ; we then, after a hearty 
meal, left our baggage on the rock, and pulled up the creek,. bread 
hunting — to little purpose ; for, in about half an hour, a huge 
tapir or maypuri swam across the creek, right ahead of us, at 
which we fired, and, supposing him wounded, all hands landed 
in pursuit. lo was two hours before our people returned, with* 
out success, and the day being now too far spent to proceed, w« 
returned to the rock, and dined on an immense pacou, shot during 
our absence. 

We had now nothing to do but to pull for the Massaweeny 
creek, which we reached with no particular occurrence on the 
third day, passing the Punoony creek. The liver, from the Ca- 
boony to this point, turns considerably to the westward. The 
Punoony bos a small fall directly at its mouth ; about one hun* 
dred Indians reside ot it; and there is a path of communication 
between it and Cuyuny, three days and a half journey. 

As far as Massaweeny creek had been explored by Mr. M'Kay, 
s year ago, in search of Sirwabally timber ; but at this point com* 
menced the terra incognita, and we laid in a stock of bread for a 
week, by slaying here two days. It is a small settlement, but 
well supplied with cassada and buck yams. I contrived hers 
to make a new acquaintance, in the shape of a small worm, called 
teckih, half an inch long, aud the thickness of a pin, with a large 
head ; which bored through the skin in several places, and caused 
the most painful itching. As soon as 1 discovered the cause, I 
applied a little calomel on the aperture, and covering it with a 
plaster, extracted the worm. 

The day we left Massaweeny brought us lo Aratjuaw, a pretty 
deserted settlement on a conical hill on au island ; here the fleas 
set us at defiance, and we hung amongst the trees at the water's 



32 Voyage up the Maasaroony in 183 1 . 

edge. The next night our quarters were not better, in a low 
island, at the thirty-third fall. These two days, the river again 
ran southerly. On the third day we got clear of the archipelago ; 
and towards evening, in rounding the point of the river opposite 
Ocoowa creek, we got sight of Arthur's Table, the first visible 
point of the mountains of St. George, the great central chain of 
Guiana. We slept this night a little above the Muribisce creek. 

It is hardly possible to describe the relief to the feelings we ex- 
perienced on emerging from the everlasting confusion of islands 
and narrow passages into, once more, the open and placid Massa- 
roony, which from this point again took a westerly turn, with 
scarcely a single curve in its course. It had the appearance of an 
immense inland lake ; and Arthur's Table, at an apparent distance 
of about sixty miles, was a treat to a Demerarian, who had seen 
nothing for years but the dead levels of the coast. We did not get 
access to this mountain, but, by comparison with the part of the 
chain we afterwards scaled, it must be five or six thousand feet 
above the level of the sea. We found no perceptible difference 
of temperature between this point and the coast ; but, upon boil- 
ing water, the point of ebullition was barely ^lO"" of Fahrenheit. 

On leaving this point, we breakfasted at a small settlement 
called Keaquay, where the river again turns to the south ; and 
proceeding, took up our quarter on a sand-bank in an island at 
the mouth of the Semang creek. Having, at Keaquay, procured 
a supply of bread, we staid here two days, to fish and hunt, filling 
our pepper-pot with excellent fish, and some feathered game. 
We, the third day, mounted Teboco, the thirty-fourth and last 
fall ; being the extreme southern point of our whole excur- 
sion'*'. From our last camp we had, at intervals, a glimpse of a 
table-mountain, due south, with a conical peak, at the north ex- 
tremity, extremely like the crater of a volcano ; it was equal in 
height to Arthur's Table, and we christened it Raleigh's Peak. 
The Caranang creek appeared to lead in a direction toward it • 
but as none of our party could guide us to it, we proceeded to 
the settlement of Aramayka, the river, from Teboco, taking a 
course back again, nearly N. by W. At the fall of Teboco, the 
river narrows to one-third of its usual breadth, but widens again 
immediately after. At Aramayka, the cliffs of Marybyacrew 



* One can hardly suppose that the tradition of a fpceai iuland lake could ha?e 
been spread over so wide a tract, entirely without foundation, and I venture to oflbr 
an ezijlanation of the fabled lake Par§mah, as follows. The Ma&saroony, for ten 
days* journey above Teboco, is still water, with little more current than some lakes. 
If, at any former period, the horizontal stratum of granite at the pass of Teboco was 
unbroken, the still water must have been at least fifty feet above its present level, 
and a vast lake, ten or twelve miles wide, by one hundred and fifty or two hundred 
miles long, would be the natural consequence. Presume on a fact like this^ and 
El Dorado need be uo fable. 



Voyage up l/ic \fiusaroony in 1831. 33 

become visible ; about one thousand feet liigli, with perpeixlicuinr 
noithern faces. A remarkable detached peaked rock, on ilie west 
fice of the clilTs, is called the Caribisce. The legend says, it is 
I man of that nation turned into stone for attempting tii scale (he 
cliffs. VVe booked at Aramajka a noble lowlow, of nearly two 
hundred pounds weight. This fish is very common through the 
whole of Uie still water; which proves a great depth, as its haunts 
ate seldoni less than four or five fathoms deep. The river is here 
a mile wide ; being about two hundred and fifty miles from its 
coofiucnce. 

1 expected, that in this region 1 should have been able to deter- 
mine die natural history of the |>acou, but, strange to say, from 
Tcboco upwards, we did not see or hear of a single fish : it ap- 
pears enUrely confined to the falls of the archipelago ; and the try 
oril (s as yet entirely unknown to either the Indians or the Eu- 
ropeans*. 1 have caught, by poisoning the waters, upwards of 
one thousand pacou, and the fry of other kinds of tish, to a finger's 
length ; but in all tliis wholesale destruction, 1 have never seen a 
pacou less than a foot long. 

At the poitit df Teboco, the granite assumes & regular formation 
for the first time, and is ever afterwards found in strata, al an angle 
of about five degrees above the horizon ; its apex being nearly 
northward. It forms the base of all the clifi's to a height from 
■bout six hundred to one thousand feet, when a perpendicular 
and cubical formation of nuartz is the general superslriiclure to 
about fifieen hundicd feet higher. 

From a little above Aramayka, the chain of Merumeh is seen, 
bounding the hoiizon, and stretching to the north, where it ap- 
pears highest, and terminates abruptly in perpendicular faces, like 
the other branches of the chain. Near the southern extremity, in 
a clear dav, a while curved line is seen, extending from the sum- 
mit to the base of the ehain ; which is the Merumeh creek, forcing 
its way from the table-land above to the valley of the Massa- 
riiony below. Prom this point it is fully fifty miles distant ; and 
as it cannot be less than twelve hundred feet high, in my first trip 
I bad some dlfiicully in believing the Indians' assurances, that it 
Has truly a cataract, though a powerful glass gave it eviJenily 
the appearance of water. At this present time, the mountains 
were so clouded, that we could get but a very faint and uncertain 



■ • upon « Ktaeaci 
Ihesurfaeeoflhixra 


tom 


y memorflnd 


m>, I iind that w 


hm 


«*,^ 


mming 






nail fry, of about ui inch lonu 






■h«li. 


The 


I»diu.cith« could 


not 


would not 1 


11 uj what Ihey » 




a; 

tiller. 




tleut 


16>t they Oct« or the 
iiinim.ai>le-ilbne 


dim 


family u Ih 
he .till wuu 


parou. Shuuld i 
, which il iliwi au 


bet 


uffioi.m 


', "B" 


■Od lUMeth ta thoo 


Ihcf 


Lillj. II mm 


ttavu chingi! ill 


fj'j" 


» well a 






ftttlureuaawri. 


nlbe 


till WdtcT!.. 












VOL. IV. 










1) 







34 Voyage up the Massaroony in 1831. 

view of it, though our after experience gave us full reason to be-> 
lieve in the probability of its existence. We were disappointed 
again in procuring a guide up the creek ; the few inhabitants who 
were there on my last excursion having since deserted it. It is 
one of the greatest inconveniences of travelling in the Accaway 
country, that a populous village one year is totally deserted the 
next| and the inhabitants a thousand miles off. To compensate 
for this, however, houses spring up as suddenly in the uninhabited 
solitudes ; so that your guide, if he has recently been the route — 
(his greatest qualification) — can generally find provision stations. 

At half a day's journey from Aramayka is Abadukaye, where 
It is absolutely necessary to lay in bread for four days, as there is 
no intermediate settlement between this and the Ehping creek. 
In the course of the next three days' journey^ the view's of the 
adjacent cliffs and mountains were beautiful ; but the sleeping- 
places indifferent, with the exception of the third, a sand opposite 
the Corowa-aikura creek, which is pleasant enough. A day's 
journey farther is £hping creek, where it was necessary to lay 
111 a week's bread. The river here is not more than four or five 
hundred yards broad, and is full of sand, but with very few rocks. 
The hefa or musk-duck is frequently seen ; and the population of 
the Indians increases considerably. 

On the 10th of October, having been twenty-six days' journey 
from the post, we arrived at the mouth of the Corobung creek, 
where we bivouacked ; and were soon well supplied with fish and 
game. We, the next morning, started up the creek, which is about 
one hundred yards of average breadth : and having met with soni» 
detention from a Hock of wild hogs, of which we took four, we 
reached the settlement of Pero, on the west bank, that evening. 
A day and a half from this brought us to the fall of Macrebah, 
where navigation ceases. 

Ill describing the scenery of this creek, I feel as much at a loss 
with my pen as my pencil. The features are so totally dissimilar 
to those which are generally described as beautiful and romantic, 
that 1 can only state, whatever was the cause, my chief sensation 
was an oppression of the senses, from which I was glad to 
escape. In the first place, the water of the creek, though per- 
fectly transparent, is a deep chocolate colour; and the sands are 
reflected in it, of a bright claret or purple. The creek winds 
about in the most opposite directions ; and at every turn, a large 
and bold spit of white sand projects, which contrasts most un- 
pleasantly with the surrounding water. There is uniformly no 
middle ground for the landscape ; but from the dark and still 
creek, with its uniform fringe of trees, starts up, as if by magic, 
a perpendicular cliff, of one thousand or fifteen hundred feet ; 
which you know is distant, but which you feel as if in your most 




Voyage np the Mnssaroony in 1 83 ( . 35 

liinijeroui proximUy; and, ss yoti see all around you detacliid 
muses, appareaily torn from tliese gigantic walls of iiuliire, you 
aptct every moroeut to »ee one of tliem blocking up the cieek 
litfore you or cutting oft' your retreat. Every two or llirec liours 
imi come to an immense block of granite, to ^yms wliicli you have 
a channel barely wide eiiougli for your craft; llien llie channel 
wtdem to one hundred and fifty yards, and you are In a claret- 
colouted lake, so shallow that you can acarce swim. At the very 
lut, you enter a capacious basin, as black as ink, surrounded hy 
a bold extensive sand, as white as chulk ; and you hear a fall of 
water before you, but perceive no current, though there is a foam 
like \rast on the surface, which remains the whole day without 
aov visible alteration. On a more attentive eiiaminalion, yon 
perceive at a distance a broken while line struggling lliruugh a 
cluster of granite rocks, at tlie base of Iwo quartz clifl's, of a 
mixed cfaatacter; and this is the fall of Macrebah. In the basin 
below we saw frequently an appearance exactly similar to a snow 
slcirm: whenever a gust of wind came down the full, il laised 
before it the froth or foam in flakes so exactly resembling snow, 
that a slight observer might have been easily deceived by it. We 
here saw several specimens of the cock of tlie rock, called by llie 
Indians Cowanaaru, both skinned and alive, and ascertained, 
bevTHid doubt, its natural history, being entirely fructivorous. 

We pitched our tents on the sand, at the east side of the basin ; 
and as the fall before us did not appear to be mure than four or 
five feet in height, we were rather disappointed in the Indian 
account of the falls of Corobung. In the morning we protreeded 
to measure the fall, by the simple experiment of placing Indians 
on the different ledges, with the feet of one on a level with the 
bead of another. In tliis way we were nearly half an hour in 
icnuibling to llie top, and twenty Indians, or about one hundred 
feet, was the real height of what from below appeared so Iriding. 
But even here, at the very top of the fall, ihe stream ran princi- 
pally in subterranean passages — the bottom of ihe masses of 
granite being worn so much away, that the tops projected and 
hid the watercourse from view. 

Water boiled here at 20B" of Fahrenheit; and we could per- 
ceive that, in coming up the cieek, a wind from the cliffs was 
nearly ten degrees cooler than one from the river. In tlie middle 
of the fall of Macrebah, I also found a small spring of clear trans- 
parent and slightly effervescent water, without the least feiTU- 
ginous tincture. Tliis spring appeared to issue from the superior 
quarts fomialton, ami proves that the extraordinary purple tinge 
of the watera of these creeks is from the decomposition of the 
granite, the iron of which, in combination with the solution of 

li 2 



I 



36 Voyage up the Massaroony in 1831. 

astringent vegetable matter, gives the peculiar dark appearauce 
of all these creeks*. 

After a day spent in attempting to sketch Macrebah, we pro- 
ceeded up the Seroon creek, which is a little below Macrebah, 
and having landed on the south bank, began to scramble up 
the hill for the upper fall. Of all the paths I ever saw, this was 
the woi-st, for the first hour's journey ; the greater part of it was 
at an angle of 4o°, with abrupt descents, and ladders of roots. 
My companion, after an hour's perseverance, was exhausted* 
and gave up. As I was considerably the lighter of the two, I 
however proceeded, and there being cool springs of water issuing 
from the I'ock at short intervals, I got to the top in about two 
hours ; the last hour being comparatively easy. 1 here found the 
'remains of an Indian shed, and could hear distinctly the fall ; so I 
sent back to my companion, who joined me the next mornings 
before nine o'clock ; and, having breakfasted, ten minutes' walk 
brought us to the fall of Coo ma row. 

We were now on table-land, being evidently the extreme 
height of the granitic horizontal formation, the laminae being per- 



* In alludinf^ to this spring, which is the only one I had then seen in the colony 
rlsinp^ in an elevated rocky lurface, and not merely a percolation through sand-hilU 
from adjoining swamps, as is the case with the heads of alluvial creeks, I have been 
struck with a most remarkable coincidence, recently discovered. In the centre of 
Gcor}:;e Town, Demerara, Major Staples, of the Custom-house, with an inefficient ap- 
paratus, but by constant perseverance for a number of years, succeeded in penetrating 
the depth of the alluvium ; and on arriving; at the micaceous substratum, which is 
the indication of the primary formation, a clear spring of water bunt out, exactly of 
the same appearance and quality as the white spring of Alacrebah. An examination 
of the progress of his boring process is an interesting geological morgeau on the 
formation of alluvium. It was well known, that at ten or twelve feet below the sur- 
face, an irregular stratum of fallen trees, of the kind called courida, common on the 
coast, existed in a semi-carbonized state ; but Major Staples discovered, at /l/iy feet 
below the surface, another immense fallen forest of the same kind of wood, twelve 
feet thick ; the superstratum being blue alluvium, and the substratum reddish ochre, 
diminishing in shades to yellow, light straw, and again merging into slate-coloured 
clay. The remainder, to a depth of one hundred and twenty feet from the surface, 
is argil, the lower part of which is of that smooth soapy surface which indicates the 
purest Wedgwood clay, and would no doubt be of great use in the potteries. It is 
evident from this, that some few ages ago this continent was habitable fifty feet below 
the present surface ; that it was then covered with an immense forest of couridas, 
which was destroyed by conflagration, as appears by the ochrous substratum. The 
sea must, at that time, have been confined to the blue water, where there is now eight 
or nine fathoms ; and whatever may have been the comparative levels then between 
the Pacific and Atlantic, the level of the water on this side of the isthmus of Darien 
is now fif>y feet higher than it was once — whether before or after Columbus's time is 
uncertain. An endless train of deductions follows, but the practical one is this ; — ^that 
in a land where we formerly depended on the clouds for water in the dry season, we 
CEO now, as in other countries, draw it also from the earth. No estate has now an 
excuse for being without a sufficiency of fresh water, at least for culinary purposes. 
In fact, Major Staples has done more for the colony, by this one succetsful experi- 
ment, than any iuuividual before him. 



Voyage up the Masmroomj in 183 1, 37 

feotly horizontal, and those of the bed of the creek in large plates 
Drisjrers, of from one to three inches in thickness. The creek 
itself was one hundred yards broad, but was so completely choked, 
from as far as the eye could reach above to the edge of itie fall, 
*ilh grass, that there appeared scarcely any water in it. This 
f[raas was in appearance like large horse-tails — the roots being 
fixed to the bottom of the creek — the stem att thick as an urm, 
aiid dividing at top into a multiplicity of long threads, which com- 
pletely covered the surface of the water. Through this green 
sieve, however, a good two feet of vvaier percolated, and dis- 
charged itself in one uninterrupted sheet, one hundred yards broad, 
and at lea^t double in perpendicular descent, liy holding on 
the grass, we uailed across the fall to the eastern side, where we 
had the best %iew of its «li<itinguishing features, so lolally dilTering 
from anything we had before s.een. From the side of the fall, the 
shoot seemed to have an inclination out of the perpendicular in- 
wards, and tinished in a perpetual rainbow and mist, so as totally 
to obscure the bottom. At some distance below this, the creek 
appeared like a narrow white thread running between the rocks, 
which were of an Indian red colour. And such was the distance 
of the descent, we could not at the top distiugnisli the noise of 
the fall when striking the bottom ; that at the top of the pilch was 
veiy liifling. By boiling water {fiOff), we were here two degrees 
of Fahrenheit above Maciebah; and though the bottom of the 
fall was utterly inaccessible, the appearance of the creek from 
die lop did not authorise us to deduct more than three or four 
hundred feet for its descent ; and the evidence of our own eyes, 
from the side, giving the fall at least double the descent of the 
breadlii, we had no hesitation in pronouncing it sis hundred feet, 
vhich I am certain will be found within the mark. 

From the bottom to the top of the fall, the temperature had 
decreased tifteen degrees (g5^ to 70°), and the climate wns, con- 
sequently, delightful ; but time was pressing, and as my com- 
panion, with every disposition to proceed, was evidently not equal 
to a rapid journey over these precipices, we relinquished our in- 
tended advance to the next fall of Aaceaquaw, which was on a 
comparatively small scale and two days' journey distance, and 
returned to Macrebuh. 

We saw Cooniarow when the creek was at its lowest, but the 
grass and water mark on the boughs of the trees and on the banks 
were fully eight feet above the present level. In the rainy season, 
therefore, it must be absolutely inaccessible, as the whole of the 
table-land on which we stood must be then liouded, In tliis stale 
the fall will be nearly one hundred and tifty yards broad, and the 
body of water discharged ten feet deep; and, according to the 



38 Voyage up the Massaroony in 1831. 

Indians^ such a smoke ascends from the bottom as obscures all 
the surrounding landscape. It can then be heard at Pero--a 
day's journey distant. But it is not likely that any traveller vvill 
Bee it m this state. 

On leaving Coomarow we felt considerable mental relief ; for 
altogether it was an object that rather oppressed and astonished, 
than pleased and gratified us ; and we now turned our backs to 
the cliffsy and prepared to enjoy a scene much more adapted to 
our feeble conceptions. 

At a bold turn, where the creek opened into a broad bay, we 
found the whole creek population of Indians, with forty or fifty 
craft, busy beating hai-arry; and we pulled into the middle of them 
just at the moment the fish began to feel its effects. It was the 
most enlivening sight — men, women, aivd children, with bows and 
arrows, knives, and landing nets, chasing in all directions the in* 
toxicated iish, which nearly covered the surface of the water. I 
was soon left with one hand in the canoe, the rest taking the 
light mapepuhs of the Indians, and each pursuing his own share 
of the sport. Though my craft was rather unwieldy, I got, with 
a small landing net, one hundred and fifty-four fish, of about four 
or five pounds average ; and there were at least tliirty other 
craft loaded to tlie brim. As soon as the fishing was over, we 
pulled as fast as possible to Pero, and began barbacotting our 
iish before they spoiled. Upwards of two thousand, of four 
pounds average weight, were taken. For two days and nights. 
It was now nothing but fire and smoke, curing the fish, of which 
we laid in as much as we could possibly consume for a fortnight; 
and, this completed, we bade adieu to our Coorobung friends, and 
proceeded on our return to the Massaroony. ,41^ 

On our passage down the creek, we were absolutely annoyed 
with the quantities of bread and yams brought from the different 
settlements, for sale ; but as our rule was never to refuse pro- 
visions, we took all ; so that when we again reached the Massa- 
roony, we were stored for a month. We now resolved to proceed 
up the river as far the season would allow us; and having spent ten 
days in the creek, left it on the morning of the 21st of October. 

The last night at Pero, however, there was a heavy fall of rain. 
This night was still worse, and our encampment very uncomfort- 
able. I began to suspect that the dry season was nearly over; and, 
upon questioning the Indians, they told us, that of course '' it was 
so, or the people would not otherwise have beat the hai-arry.*** In 
fact, it appears^ that, in the immediate vicinity of the mountains, 
they can calculate to a certainty, within a few days, the breaking 
up of the seasons; and as I had in March a pretty good sample 
of the thunders of Merqmeh, I advised my companion to return. 



Voyage up the Mcutaroony in \&3i. 39 

I now found that ttie short dry season is not long enotifh to 
penetrate into the mountains; and ihnt the long one should be 
taken early, i. e., the middle of August, From the Caranang 
creek there is a path, nliich communicates, in two diiys, willi the 
source of the Massaroony ; and a day farther, with the Quaw-ding 
— either the Rio Branco, or a branch of it. This is, therefore, 
the route for future explorers ; who ought always to have a fort- 
night before them, to look at the Hemang and Caranang creeks. 
Merumeh is a point of most particular moment, as the table-land 
in that direction must be of vast extent. 

On inquiring amongst the Indians, whether the mountains were 
inhabited, the uniform answer was — "No; where would the 
people geiwaler?" It appears, therefore, that except in the 
creeks iLat arise in ihem, and where the paths of communicatioa 
across are found, there is no population. The natives, however, 
all agree, that formerly the whole of this region was peopled by 
the Caribisce ; and the true Accaway country is not acknowledged 
to begin for three days' journey west of the Corobung, Alt 
the names are Caribisce, and the present inhabitants have, within 
twenty or thirty years, emigrated from the west and south, the 
Caribisce having gone off to the east. 

That there has been here a powerful nation of Indians is evi- 
dent, for the Caribisce were that nation ; but that there ever was 

' a great capital is impossible, for except the Indians became gra- 
xiers, ihey could not subsist together in suAicient numbers to form 
more than a small village. There are savamiahs at the western 
extremity of the detour of the Massaroony, which extend to the 
bead of the Cuyuny, and arc eligible for cattle grazing ; but they 
are inhabited by the most migratory of all the tribes, the Para- 
inunahs ; and here, if anywhere, is the lake ParSmah, an elevated 
savannah, perhaps flooded in the heavy rains. 

It is curious to observe, that the cause of the desolation of these 
regions has been the abolition of the Indian slave-trade. The 
Caribisce, deprived of their market on the coast, have retired to 

< the interior, where they still find purchasers amongst the Bra- 

I zilians ; but to make an equal prolit with them will require double 
the number of slaves to what were required for these colonies, for 

' it is notorious, that in the Rio Branco, at all times, Indian slaves 

' could be purchased at one-third of the price given by the Dutch. 

I The suppression of this traffic here, therefore, without taking the 
requisite steps to put it efiectually down everywhere, has deso- 
lated our interior, and driven from us our bravest and most faithful 
allies. And it lias not diminished, but, on the contrary, greatly 

^^^^eased the lot of human misery, for more slaves are now sold 



I 

I 

I 



40 Voyage up the Massaroony in 1831. 

to thtt Portuguese than were to us, and they are worse treated, 
being mostly worked to death in the mines. 

In our excursion I was anxious to tind, not gold and emeralds^ 
but s|)ots where men, driven by circumstances from their native 
country, might find a shelter and a liome ; but I must confess 
that 1 did not succeed. There is no tract in El Dorado like the 
«ite of the Missions of the Caroni; and the mountains, though 
their temperature must be favourable to the shepherd, do not, 
from their structure, give much promise of fertility. The 
observation of the Indians is here also applicable, for except on 
the immediate borders of the mountain creeks, there is no water. 
In fact, this country is only inhabited by tribes of hunters, for the 
simple reason, that it is uninhabitable by others ; add to which, it 
is, for the transmission of merchandise, inaccessible. 

The fall of Teboco appears to be the key of El Dorado ; below 
this the Indians are all more or less sophisticated, but at Cooro- 
bung there was not the least trace of civilization, except amongst 
the stragglers from the Missions, who were making haste to forget 
it. Wc found, however, an Accaway, of Coorobung, with all his 
supeistition and stupidity, infinitely superior to an Arawaak of 
the coast, with his pretensions to cultivation ; and it was not till 
we returned to the post, that we again entered the atmosphere of 
%ice and crime, Indian misery, and depravity. 

The descent of the falls is accomplished with a rapidity of which 
few travellers have a conception ; in less than one day, we got 
over the ascent of three — eighty or ninety miles being an easy 
day*s journey. The middle channels are now chosen, where the 
current is most rapid, and the greatest body of water is rushing 
through. It requires four stout hands, two ahead and two astern, 
to give steerage way whilst shooting many which are very crooked : 
that of Itachuh is a zigzag of four turns, and not a few acci- 
dents have occurred hereto the small craft of the Indians; we, 
however, got through all danger, and, on the 30th of October, 
arrived at the post. 



■• ■■ I *. . 




) 

m. — Journey /h rough the JUmma-leh Mounlatns to ihe Sources 
«/ the liiKer Jumna, and thence to the Confines of Chinese 
Tarlary : performed in April — October, 18^7, by Captain C, 
Johnson, kite of (he Wlk Drtujaom. Analysed from liis MS. 
Journal, :>iid cominiiuicaled, willi reiiiaiks, by VV. AiiiDWurlii, 
Esc]., F.R.G.S., nnd Foitigii Currespuiideiit of the Ocogra- 
pLical Socielj of Palis. Read 24tii I'eb. 1834, 

Having formed a pariy wilh iwo of llie officers of bis regiment. 
Cap lain Johnson left C-.iwn|)oie on diL' evening of the Ul of April, 
18!i7, "lid after a journey, in palanquins, of about three hundred 
Xiid €fly miles, arrived at llurd\far during the period of the great 
fair held there in the early part of April. Hurdwar (Heri, Vishnu, 
and X>ewar. a passage) is at the foot of the first range of hills met 
with on approaching the great central chains; and here the union 
of ihe Itagenittee and the Ahicnnnda, called the Ganga or the 
river, forces its way througli the uionnlains from the valley of 
Deyral into the plains. The spot ivhere the waters first issue 
from ibe ntuuulains ts peculiarly sacred, and tlie assembling of 
persons from the most remote parts of India, to perform those 
ablutions which their religion enjoins, led ullimalely to the insti- 
tution of a fair, or mercanlile meeting. 

The pagodas, with the ghauts for bathing, occupy the right 
bank of the river, under the town, through which lies the only 
path into the Deyrah Dhoon, or valley. The mountains on each 
of the pass are of no great height, and rise on the one side with a 
perpendicular face of bare rock, and on the other with a gentle 
silope, wooded to the summit. The Fakeers, who make Hurdwar 
Vheir abiding place, have generally caves hollowed out in the rock 
above the pass, and accessible only by means of ladders : some 
few reside in the temples. Captain Johnson considers Raper'a 
Utimate of the visitors at Hnrduur, one year with the other, at 
two millions of souls, as being rather below than above the true 
average, 

Our traveller took the opporlnnity of a short stay at Hurdwar, 
to visit Kniikul, a neighbouring collection of sacred buildings of the 
Hindoo!. There were pagodas and deotas of all sizes and shapes, 
some of the handsomest specimens of Hindoo architecture which 
he had seen, only much defaced by the uncouth tigures of their 
mythology painted on the outside in glaring colours, and witli an 
alter disregard of proportion and ignorance of perspective. The 
total want of observation of a native artist cannot be more strongly 
exemplified than in the representation of the " Tenth Avatar," 
where Vishnu, like our Death in the Revelation, is expected to 
appear mounted on a while horse ; the hoiae is invariably repre- 
Mulcd at a trot, either with both the off or both the near feet 



I 



42 Journey to the Himma^'leh Mountains. 

raised at the same time, which peculiarity of motion belongs to 
the camel but not to the horse. 

The valley of Deyrah, which our traveller entered by the pass 
of Hurdwar^ varies from twelve to fifteen miles in breadth, and 
may be about seventy miles in length, extending in a nearly east 
and west direction to the foot of the second range of hills. The 
entrance to the valley was peculiarly beautiful, with a most luxu* 
riant and almost virgin vegetation ; in the tree-jungle, the creepers 
attain a very great size, spreading from tree to tree^ matting the 
whole together, and rendering it impenetrable even to an elephant. 
The DhooUi from this reason, is unhealthy, except in the neigh- 
bourhood of Deyrah, where the jungle has been burned for several 
miles around. The valley is otherwise cool, and watered by nu- 
merous rivulets, abounding in fish resembling trout; and the 
jungle abounds in all kinds of game from the tiger to the quail. 
The character of the trees, and the scenery generallyi resembled 
very much that of our own latitudes^ and this illusion was only 
destroyed by occasional glimpses of the snowy range, and by the 
appearance of black partridges and jungle cocks. Greenswards, 
from the growth of graminse, begin in these regions to occupy 
the surface soil, more particularly beneath the shade of the 
banyan-trees. 

As they advanced up the valley they were obliged to cross the 
dry and stony beds of rivulets and rivers ; the wooded undulating 
ground and open lawns tiad disappeared, and the country was flat, 
rather swampy, or covered with withered graminse. 

The distant snowy peaks of the Himma-leh, seen from these 
spots, had an extraordinary appearance, the acclivities of the 
mountains being concealed by the clouds, and the loftiest peaks 
starting in an almost irrecognizable manner from the blue sky 
above. 

The tree jungle of the Deyrah Dhoon consists mostly of teak, 
leesoo, and some pines ; in the vicinity of Deyrah were topes 
or groves of mangoes ; in the court of the Seik Temple, jack- 
trees ; and in the hills beyond Deyrah, cultivated land, abounding 
in corn. 

The small town of Deyrah is about four miles from the second 
range of hills, and is formed by the cantonments of the Goorkha 
regiment, raised after the Nepaul war, and the native bazaar 
attached to it. Within a few miles of Deyrah is the Fort of Ka- 
tuga, not in itself a place of strength, but in a nearly inaccessible 
situation, and during the Goorkha warfare, it was desperately de- 
fended by that tribe. 

At Deyrah the party hired coolies, and started on the (2 1st, fol- 
lowing the windings of a small mountain stream till they came to 
a low fall^ abov^ which the stream expanded into a small lake ; 




Journey to tlu Hmma-l^ Mountains. 



43 



ihey then crossed over a wooded hill to the right, through thick 
brushwood, abounding in pheasants and other gaiue-biids, and 
proceeded to the village of Nagul, situate on a »leep bank over 
llie river Saoue ; llie valley of which forms the entrance into the 
second range of mountains. From hence the party follo^^ed the 
bed of llie river, which is strewn with huge rocks for about a mile 
lo the dripping rock of Sansadarrah, opposite to which there is 
a small shed for travellers. 

The dripping rock of Sansadarrah rises to a considerable height 
over a small basin of water, which is only a few yards from the 
river. The rock overhangs this basin like the roof of an open 
piazza, extending for about fifty yards in lengtli. Above it there 
is a small stream, which flows from the mountain' side to the edge 
of the precipice, where, instead of forming a cascade, it is absorbed 
by the marshy nature of the soil, is filtered through the ruck, and 
falls into the basin in a perpetual shower. The lock is covered 
with beautiful stalactites, which are more remarkable in a cave to 
the right (m facing the rock), where the roof is actually studded 
with ibem, and where stalaginitic iitcrustalions aboiuid on the 
floor, which, meeting the stalactites, look like pillars sujipurting 
an editice. In the bottom of the cave tlie water is about two feet 
deep. A curious deception occurs when the sun dues nut shine 
on the sparkling drops, — they become quite invisible, and the 
water Js so entirely lost sight of, that our traveller could not con- 
vince himself that it had not ceased falling till he crossed the 
stream to view it more closely. 

Around Sansadarrah the hills rise almost perpendicularly on 
every side to the height of five tliousaiid feet, and arc clothed to 
the very top with the most beautiful wood. As there is always a 
breeze above, the rustling of the trees mingled with the sound of 
the falling waters and the murmuring of the Haone, assisted by the 
great heat, has a lulling effect, and gives a peculiar charm to this 
spoL Our traveller's remarks on the rustling of the leaves remind 
us of similar impressions experienced by De Humboldt in the 
forests of the upper Oronooko, where the absence of tliat sound 
gave even a greater intensity to the disagreeable sensations caused 
b^ heat. 

At this point of their journey the travellers were obliged to 
abandon the outer tly or cover of the large tent, which could not 
be carried along these almost pathless tracts. In the vicinity of 
Sansadarrah there is a spring, impregnated with sulphuretted 
hydrogen, and depositing sulphur in a thick coat on the edge and 
bottom. The waters were clear and tasteless. 

The road, on leaving Sansadarrah, wound for the first mile 
along the hill, at a great height above the river. As they were 
moving along one of the party shot a rocket-bird, the iirst they bad 



44 Journey to the Himma-leh Mountains. 

seen. After passing an open spot^ where the Kaldee torrent^ or 
Gadh, joins the Saone, the ravine contracts, and the road lies in 
the bed of the torrent, which is filled with large rocks, rendering 
the progress very difficult. They here met with a party who were 
t^/i-enty days' march from Gangoutree, three in deep snow. They 
carried one of their number in a basket, his leg having been shat- 
tered by a falling stone. In the continuation of their journey 
beyond Rhudwarah, the path ascended in a zigzag manner up the 
face of a nearly perpendicular precipice, till at the height of about 
three thousand feet above the ravine, the crest of the ridge is 
attained, and the road again descends into a deep and gloomy 
valley called Muggra. 

This is the second range of hills traversed in approaching the 
Himma-leh ; and from the crest on the one side was seen the rich 
valley of Deyrah, with the plains of Sehampore in the distance ; 
and on the other, hills clothed with pines ; and beyond, the gi- 
gantic peaks of the snowy range towering above everything. 

This is the first appearance of pine-trees^ which commence on 
the upper parts of the hills ; lower down were abundance of 
vegetables, wild fruits, and shrubs. They noticed cherries, pears, 
raspberries, and strawberries. N othing could exceed the number, 
beauty, and variety of flowering shrubs. Whole sides of hills were 
sometimes covered with yellow and white jessamine, gum cistus, 
an*d the scarlet rhododendron, which grows to the size of a forest 
tree. Pheasants and chuccores, or red-legged partridges, were 
numerous. 

The road rising from the Muggra winds over a shoulder of the 
hill, past the village of Relee, and then descends for about a mile. 
After which the party encamped on a small terrace at the entrance 
of a beautiful valley, cultivated in the lower parts. Below was 
the village of Phadee, round which the hills expand into a fine 
amphitheatre. Among the forest trees were hollies and oaks, the 
latter inferior in size and foliage to the English species. On the 
banks of the Uglawar, ihe mountains were found cultivated for 
about one-third of their height ; the face of the hill being cut into 
ledges (cates or keats) like steps or stairs, each ledge being about 
five or six feet above the next to it. The water being retained 
successively in each cate by an enbankment, to the depth of two 
or three inches, and let oflF into the next by its removal. 

The inhabitants of this valley appear well off, with plenty of 
buffaloes and sheep ; their dress is entirely of blanket stuff, and 
consists of trowsers and a kind of tunic, with a loose blanket 
thrown over, and fastened on ihe breast with a large steel or brass 
pin ; the head-dress is merely a long blanket cap, rolled into the 
form of a turban, and fitting the head at the top like a skull-cap. 

Our party stopped at a halting-place calied, after a temple^ 




Journf'j io thf Himma-lvh Mountains. 45 

Bewaiinee, the nearest village to whicli is Tliaiiii, from whence 
ihey obtained siipplieH. While anil red raspbenies grew in the 
vicinity. Tlie Jiiinlee lortent i^ here crossed on a sango or pine 
bridge. As tliey advanced along a road which sonielinieii followed 
llie bed of the stream, and at oUiers ran along the face of the cliA', 
the country became wilder, and [he hills entirely bare towards ihe 
lop, though cultivated below. Huge isolated deodars {Pintu 
dfodar), which resemble the true cedar, and are confined to great 
etevatious, were observed springing from the bare rock, where na 
other tree could tind root. The kaukur or barking deer, and the 
ghurl or wild goat, are found on the hills near this. After passing 
tlie prosperous village of liAIA, having seven or eight good slated 
houses, they came to Morarra, a miserable village on a bleak hill, 
but with some cultivation in the valley. Here Captain Johnson 
Has taken ill, and on the third day was carried by coolies on poles, 
in tlie continuation of his journey. The road lay up-hill to the Co- 
rassoo Gorge, and then descended for four and a half miles aloug 
Ihe face of the precipice, past the village of Laloorie lu the Nagun 
Gadb, a pretty copious stream at the fool of the Janda'gun hill. 
The party crossed it, and encamped at the opposite side. The 
rouittry around was well cultivated. At the top of the gorge the 
turni trees were oak, pine, and rhododendrons. Here our tra- 
veller was again obliged to rest on account of ill health. 

The 1st of May, again travelled in the chair; the road one 
mile of ascent, and two miles a level and gentle slope, along the 
face of the mountain, where the Nagun joins the liagiruttee. The 
latter tiver here runs along a fine cultivated valley about half a 
mile wide. The mountains rise almost perpendicularly from it ; 
and oti the western side are three or four comfortable villages. 
Aftfer a pleasant route of live miles they arrived at Bareltee. Pass- 
ing llie village of Dhurassoo, our party crossed the CJudonI ; and 
ia a cave, a little aboie the river, found the last survivor of a con- 
vent of Jogee nnns— a clean, happy-looking old woman, about 
eighty years of age, and who gave them odoriferous roses. Two 
miles of ascent brinight them to ihe village of Potlorrah, where 
Ihey encamped, at an elevation of about four thousand feet im- 
mediately above the liagiruttee, but could not hear ils waters, 
wliich in the sunshine looked like a vein of bloodstone. 

After about six miles march, alternately ascending and descend- 
ing, and passing through groves of pines, they came to the village 
of I)hoondra, small and excessively dirty. I'he houses, as usual, 
consisted of three stories ; in the lower the cattle are kept, the 
second is shut up and is a kind of granary, and in the upper the 
family reside. Below the village the river is confined by two 
jutting rocks, over which is a aango. 

At the village of Mattee, their next stage, the tliemiomeler 



46 Journey to the Himma^leh Mountains. 

stood at 9^"" in the tent. Crossed the Barettee on a sango, the 
planks quite decayed, and encamped at the town of Barahat. This 
day they found an ant*s nest, formed of leaves agglutinated by a 
kind of gummy substance, on the top of a tree. Captain John- 
son visited at this place a temple which was destroyed by an 
earthquake in 1 803. There was here a trident, formed of brass, 
about sixteen feet high; the base of which was a globe of the 
same metal about thirty inches in diameter. On the octagonal 
shaft is an inscription, of which Raper, who had a man with him 
who read Nagni Sanscrit and Persian, could obtain no satisfactory 
information. The rajah of Nepaul sent a deputation of learned 
men, some years ago, to examine it^ but they also failed in recog- 
nising the characters. The inhabitants have a tradition, that the 
country was once inhabited by, or tributary to, the Chinese Tatar 
dynasty, and some who have seen the inscription have remarked a 
similarity between the characters and those of the Chinese. 

On the 6th of May our traveller left the Bagiruttee, and turned 
off to the left to ascend the ridge that separates that river from 
the Jumna. The road lay along the Barettee Gadh, having a 
steep ascent to the village of Haila, and then continuing along a 
glen, where the matting of trees and creepers almost precluded 
light. At the head of the glen was the village of Kowa, in the 
district of Salma, surrounded by a wood of deodars, some of which 
were of an enormous size. The party afterwards passed through 
a forest of scarlet rhododendrons to the village of Oprekhot, and 
crossing a range of hills, descended into a valley, which they left 
by ascending a steep hill to the pass of Jakeeni Ghati (about nine 
thousand feet), from whence they had a fine view of the Roodroo 
Himma-leh — the mountains above Gungootri. They then de- 
scended again to the Shialba rivulet, a tributai7 to the Jumna. 
The road hence continued down the glen to the village of Ka- 
noora, where they first saw the Jumna; it lay at the tK)ttom of a 
ravine, fifteen hundred feet below them ; and on the opposite side, 
and at a similar elevation, were the villages of Patra and Thaur. 
The houses in Kanoora consisted of five or six stories, the upper- 
most and the roof projecting about six feet all round. 

From this place our party began their ascent up the Jumna to 
Catnaur, a village situated in a small cultivated recess of the 
mountain, about iiya hundred feet above the river. The water of 
the Jumna was of a deep and almost inky blue. The snow was 
lying in patches on the hills around. Thermometer at sunrise 48% 
at noon 72°, In passing through a pine wood they came to a 
forest of large deodars which had been on fire, and of which no- 
thing but the black and charred trunks remained. The fire bad 
been stopped by the river, on the opposite side of which the tiees 
wore their usual green livery. The road our travellers came from 




Journey fo Ike Himma-lek Mountains. 



47 



Barahat is not (he shortest, as there is another that descends into 
the valley of the Jumna, two marches higher up. but which was 
at lliis time impassable on account of the depth of the snow. 

From Catiiaur they {iroceeded a short distance along the course 
of the river, wliicti they then crossed on a saiigo, twenty paces in 
length and two feet broad, 'i he prectpice.t rose above the river 
to I height of fifteen hundred to two thousand feet ; the bed of 
which was two to three hundred paces across. The rocks were 
mostly composed of granite, but some of the masses that had fallen 
down appeared to be of white marble. They passed ihe village 
uf Djenee, which lies on a precipitous clilf, surrounded on three 
sides bj the torrent. There was formerly a fort at this place, but 
it was destroyed by the earthquake in 1B03. From this spot they 
had ibeir fin>t diittinct view of the Bnnderpouch. Having crossed 
anotfaer perilous sangu, they approached die village of Consala, 
tlirongh a thick wood of apricot and walnut trees. 

Beyond Consala they crossed the Sumna Gadh by a sango, and 
climbed up the sleep clitfs to Kana, a comfortable and well-built 
village, 'i'he road hence wound along, about eight hundred feet 
above the liver, through groves of mulberry, apricot, and walnut 
trees. A rugged descent brought the travellei's to the Kheam 
(jadb, the water of which forms a cascade of about tifty feet in 
height, and has hollowed out a course for itself in tlie face of the 
diff sotoeihing like a chimney open in front. 

The roiid ascended to the village of Bahree, and then again 
defcended to the bed of the Bhurai Gunga, which is nearly as 
wide as the Jumna, and which they crossed by asango, continuing 
their route to the bed of the latter river, which was also crossed 
00 a bridge of similar const ruction, and which appear to be so 
much the object of the travellers' dread, to the village of Bonassoo. 
From the latter place they proceeded along the banks of the river, 
rrouing and recrossing several times ; the last lime was at the 
place where it receives the Jmri or Oonla Gunga, a rapid stream 
which has its sonrces in the snow of the Bheen Ke Dhar, a ver- 
nnt of the Buuderponch. The ascent to the village ofCursolu 
ftbout nine thousand feet above tlie seal was very steep and labo- 
rtniis. CnrH'ilu is a most isolated spot, having no communication 
with any hnbtlable place except by the almost impracticable path 
l>v which our travellers had come. It had nevertheless some ap- 
pearance of prosperity, consisting of about twenty-five houses, 
with three or four temples, built like the former of stone and pine, 
vri^ excellent roofs of carved deodars ; and probably two hundred 
and lifty acres of arable land. The inhabitants manufacture their 
own clothes (blankets), and seem to want little. 

The Jumnotree Glen ran N.N.E. from this, and had a gloomy 
and repulsive appearance. The peaks of the mountain itself 




i 



48 Journey to the Himma-leh Mountains, 

could not be seen in suck close proximity^ being hid by the gi- 
gantic deodars which threw their vast shadows around the base of 
the mountain group, and which attained a size, according to our 
traveller, " tremendous to look at." The party experienced at this 
place one of those awful thunder-storms which are peculiar to 
Alpine regions. 

There is a route from Cursolu to Look^ on the Bageruttee, two 
days' march from Gungootri, which was impracticable at this 
season. The path lies over Bheem Ke Dhar, two days in snow, 
and four without meeting a habitation. Fraser crossed it in July, 
deep in snow ; and estimated the height of the ridge at fifteen 
thousand seven hundred feet ; and at that height, says that the 
N.W. peak of the Bunderpouch was between seven and eight 
thousand feet above him. 

No one had been for the last two or three years to Jumnotree, . 
so our party had to send people on to make bridges and ladders. 
On the morning of the 12th of May, they proceeded up the glen 
to Juninotree; the cultivated land extended for a mile beyond the 
village. They then descended into the bed of the river, making 
their way through masses of rock and loose stones, crossing and 
recrossiiig the stream several times, sonielimes on sangos, but as 
frequently wading. The steep ascent of Bheiro Ghati, which they 
next came to, was made through a jungle of dwarf bamboo and 
barberries, with interspersed pine trees. They here reached a 
temple, consisting of three upright stones, with another placed 
across the top ; containing offerings of small iron tridents to the 
Byram Jee, the goddess of the stream. They descended a steep 
acclivity of loose stones and clay on the other side, and reached the 
bed of the river, where it was joined by a small stream which fell 
from a rock fifty feet high, and under which they were obliged 
to pass. 

Our party proceeded up the river, sometimes climbing steep 
and smooth rocks, by means of ladders formed by notches cut in 
pine trees, till they came to a point where the glen is about forty 
yards broad, and the snow fills up the bottom to the depth of twenty 
or thirty feet above the stream, which forces its way underneath 
through " most extraordinary-looking caverns.'* Cliffs of grey 
granite rose at the sides^ almost perpendicularly, to the height of 
twelve or fourteen thousand feet ; and the huge pihes^ rooted in 
the rocky clefts^ and overhanging the glen, added in no small de- 
gree to the sombre character of the scene. 

They pursued their way for about a mile and a half up this 
fearful ravine, sometimes on the snow, and at times in the bed of 
the river; for wherever the cliffs were so far separated as to allow 
the sun to penetrate to the bottom the snow had disappeared. 
It was in walking in the bed of the river, and on coming to a 



Journey la the lUmma-leh Mo>int<iins, A\) 

narrower pari where the snow was unmelted, that they obtained a 
full view of these "extraordinary caverns," Sometimes the snow 
had melted away from the heat of the rocks to the height of five or 
six feet above the slream ; while tlie mass above, being still 
eighteen or nineteen feet thick, spread in an aich almost the whole 
way across the valley, or was supported here and there by some of 
the iocIls that rose hii^her than the others, and served as pillars to 
^s singular icy roof. 

Oil one of the beds of snow our parly found the remains of 
several musk deer and custoorees, which, though very much 
decayed, slill retained a strong odour of musk. 

They continued llieir way up a wall of rock, over one part of 
which the river precipitated itself with great violence, till they 
came to the hot springs of Juuinotrec. They have their source in 
a ledge of rock, ten or twelve feet above the bed of the river, and 
full down into the stream, covering the rock with a sediment of 
variable colour, but chieHy yellow, and soft and spongy to the 
touch. Above the ledge, the hot water forces its way through a 
cleft in a smoking jet of five or six feet in height, which lias 
melted the snow around to the distance of twenty or thirty yards. 
The Hindoos bathe in a small basin, where the waters of the river 
■re mingled with those of the hot springs and remain sensibly 
warm, after which they are marked on the forehead with the 
yellow sediment of the hot springs. This place was generally con- 
sidered as the source of the river Jumna, and was the farthest 
point reached by Hodgson or Frazer^ and it was with some diffi- 
culty that the pundil was prevailed upon tu go any farther, his 
presence being necessary to secure the attendance of ihe guides. 
The party, however, advanced for half a mile over a snow-bed 
which completely covered the stream to the thickness of thirty or 
forty feet; this ravine becoming still narrower, till at last they 
came to an opening where the rocks formed a small amphitheatre, 
and allowed the snow-bed to expand to about three acres. Ex- 
actly opposite, as they entered this circus, was a bare cliff about 
fony feel high, over which fell a small streamlet, appaienily given 
birth to by the melting of the snow above. It was received in a 
small basin of granite, aud overllowing, forced its way under the 
snow on which they were standing in the direction of the hot 
springs. On the left a small ravine was visible for a few ynrds, but 
was completely blocked up with snow, and without the slightest 
appearance of water; above, they had a full view of the moun- 
tain, rising nearly four thousand feet, and also coated with frozen 
■now. This then was the highest point of the Jumna yet attained, 
and elevated. Captain Johnson supposes, eleven thousand two 
hundred feet above the level of the sea, the hot springs being ten 
thousand eight hundred and forty. Pine trees were flourishing 



50 Journey to the HimmaAeh Mountains. 

in forests in the snow fifteen hundred to two thousand feet 
above them. 

The vegetation in coming up the ravine was first holly, growing 
to the size of a forest tree, oaks and hazel, with an underwood of 
yellow jasmin, rose, and the rhododendron in the clefts of the 
rocks, 'rhen stunted birch, mixed with barberries, till at last even 
the dwarf bamboo failed, and nothing was to be seen but the huge 
deodar springing from the snow, and extending in forests as far as 
the eye could reach. 

The distance from Jumnotree to Cursoli is not probably more 
than five miles in a direct line, and our party returned without 
any accident, save the rolling down of the pundit, and two of the 
guides, for a considerable distance in the snow, and having only 
suffered from the heat of the sun, and the fatigue of so perilous 
an undertaking. 

Captain Johnson and his companions started without delay to 
the southward, being anxious to reach the Broang Gbati, the 
lowest of the passes into Kunawur, before the commencement of 
the periodical rains. The road by which they had to proceed 
thither had nevor been travelled by an European. On their return 
they visited, at Donassa, a spot where the river makes a fall of 
about eighty feet, the rock being a yellow stone like marble. 
There >\a8 a hot spring in the vicinity, the waters of which deposit 
a vol low sediment, and were found to boil rice. 

From Consala they retraced their steps to Catnaur, from 
wheniT thoy prxHTcdcd through a forest of pines high above the 
rivn , and dcsci nded thnnigh aculti\iited land and alternating jungle 
to tlio IhhI of ihc Shialba rivulet They afterwards crossed the 
Jumim upon n >»ngo, ci>n$i5ting of a single unsquared pine, tra- 
vri!«iiig inww the side thcv were on to a rock in the centre of the 
ationini nnd (H^ntpletini bv a similar communication finom the 
crntir to the other side. They aftenmitls continued along the 
litthl bank« and made a slot^p ascent of five hundred feet to the 
villagr of Tliaun. Fixnn hence they proceeded southward to the 
Nui^wan (ladh^ de^crilxHi a5 pivsenting the usual rocky scenery, 

I^MMcd the village of the same name« which wns large and popu- 
oUA, and nieaiupcd at that of I^itra. 

Having nitiH'itAined hoiv« that there was a shorter road to the 
uiirlion of tho Pabur and Ton^e through the Rama Serai— the 
api\V vallf»\— our ti«vellor tununi westward at once, and pro- 
ripmtiHl \\\p\ \\\t^ p\\\\\\\xW\ of Uh' hill to L>ookeat. and then turned 
ill a wr«l nuiih-\\« hi dnrttion up the Bunal Gadh. They pro- 
i^iPilril ahoul i)\v iiulrji up \\\\% glen, wiiich was studded with 
ViiUttr«i and iMillivtiiod in rwix Mfuait^ loot of ground. Being the 
Ami l^llMipi'Mlin who had i;t^\ue \\\%% way, tbey were the object of 
mUllil Vtuh^itjr Mlimilll \\\P iMtixt^a. 



t 



Journey to the Himma-lch Mountains. 5 1 

TTiey crosaed the Bunal GaHh, at the village of Goodoori, and 
continued (heir road up to (he Kanda Gadh, a beaiitil'ul glen, 
ibounding in black partridge. After three miles journeying, they 
irnved b[ tlie village of Kanda, on the ascent of the Durstall 
Ghati, and in the midst of a fore-tt of various foliage. At the (op 
of (lie Ghati, (hey got their first view of the Rama Serai, a fertile 
valley about a mile and a half, or two miles broad, and which 
3lr«(ches iii a north-easterly direction for eleven or twelve miles 
up to the old fort of Sircote, which is situated on the extreme 
point of the Kedar kanta, a lofty shoulder thrown out by the 
snowy range between the Bunderporah and the source of the 
Tonse, The Rama Serai was formerly a royal forest, under the 
native dominion, and preserved as a chase. It is now much 
neglected and thinly inhabited, the luxuriance of vegetation ren- 
dering it extremely unhealthy. The valley is said to abound in 
leopards, bears, deer, and wild hogs. Tigers have been said to be 
met with in the same district, but Captain Johnson remarks, that 
he saw no trace of them, and the inhabitants, who had plenty of 
bear and leopard skins among them, never alluded lo any larger 
animal of the latter kind. 

Four miles beyond the entrance they reached the village of 
Kundal. near Ghuondeat, which is tlie largest in (he valley. 
Here they purchased sheep, (o drive with them into the hills. 
Beyond Ghoondeat they ascended a steep hill to the Jermala 
Ghati on the west side of the valley; (hey then descended to the 
north-west, through a forest of pines, leaving (he fort of Sircote (o 
their right, passed the end of Kcdnr Kama, and arrived, after a 
rapid descent, at the Gooroo Gadh, a tributary (o the Tonse. 
They were obliged to ford this stream (wice before reaching die 
village of Kursar. The inhabitants here had never seen Europeans, 

At tlie foot of the Gooroo Gadh, they had their first view of the 
Tonse, which was then a deep and strong flowing river, twice the 
size of the Jumna, the waters discoloured by the melting of (he 
(now. Having crossed (he river in a sango, (hey encamped, up 
iu bed, at a place called Ghoon Khatra, bu[ where (here is no 
village. The scenery presented (he usual peculiarities of rugged 
roclu, and nearly vertical cliffs, with pines springing from the most 
barren spots, forests of the same trees, widi an undergrowth of 
ttrofig gramina, and occasional patches of greensward. 

Our parly left the Tonse by the Marmoor Gadh, a small stream 
in a dark and gloomy glen, overgrown with grass and weeds, and 
at tiie source of the stream they made a very steep ascent to the 
right, which brought them lo Petri, a lillle village, perched 
almost upon the top of a stony peak. Apricot trees grow around 
the village, and black partridges and chuccores were calling in all 
directions. 

B2 



52 Journey to the Himma-hh Moynfains. 

From Petri ihey continued across the hill to Sorass, from 
"whence another short ascent, and a deep fall through beautiful 
woods of silver fir, brought them to the ascent of the Balchoo 
Kanta. The difficulty of this ascent was much increased by the 
immense number of fallen deodars, whose trunks were mostly 
from sixteen to twenty feet in circumference^ and which constantly 
impeded their progress. 

From the Ghati or gorge of the pass^ they descended through 
fine forests to the Chighin Gadh, a tributary of the Pabur ; 
halted at Gokal Khoti, a village a few hundred feet above its bed, 
afterwards crossing the stream which they followed to its junction 
with the Cuneat Gadh, a large and rapid torrent, passing the 
village of Dooghull ; they crossed the latter stream on a sango, 
and had a long and laborious ascent to the village of Kirwan, 
which is very poor and mean, being about three thousand feet 
above the Pabur, and built among immense loose masses of rock, 
some of which appeared as large as the village itself. Apricot 
trees grew around, and lizards were seen in great abundance. A 
short march from hence, on the side of the hill, brought them to 
Azalt, prettily situated in view of the Pabur, and with much cul- 
tivation around. 

From Azalt they made a rapid descent to the Coomoan Gadh, 
and then ascending the opposite valley, crossed the brow of the 
hill into the valley of the Pabur. The ascent from this continued 
by Mundul, a large and populous village, to Kontan, two 
thousand seven hundred feet above the river, and seven thousand 
eight hundred and ninety-eight feet above the level of the sea. 
The turf on which they encamped at this elevation, Captain John- 
son compares to that of our own peat bogs. Our traveller was 
obliged to halt here for a few days, being again an invalid, and 
the whole party were severely incommoded by a small fly, about 
the size of the sand-fly, and very numerous. 

The Pabur is a wider stream and not so much of a torrent as 
the other rivers, nor do the mountains rise so perpendicularly from 
its bed, but slope gently for the first three thousand feet. The whole 
is richly cultivated, and dotted with villages, each shaded by its 
own grove of apricots and walnut trees, while beyond the line of 
cultivation, the pine-woods rise to the top of the hills in one thick 
mass, only broken by an occasional greensward, where the vil- 
lagers send the cattle in the day-time. 

On leaving Mundul, our parly proceeded by Racengurh (a 
station for a few Gorklias) to the village of Hant, being a descent 
altogether of about three thousand feet, in a distance of about four 
miles. The road up the Pabur, from this to Roroo, a thriving 
village, was the best they had yet met with in the hills. From 
hence to Mundla the route was rocky, barren, and uninteresting; 



Juumey to the H'mma-kh. Mountains. 53 

and from ihis village they made a short excursion to Chegong, to 
ubcain provisions. After ciossiiig the Aiidrc>ti, the western branch 
of the Pabur, which flows from the foot of the Shatool pass, they 
ascended to Pekal, and from thence to Tekree, where ihe scenery 
became more beaiilifu]. Jaen was the farthest village up the glen, 
and after a long ascent ihey reached the top of the ridge. The 
river at the foot of the mountains made a sudden turn, so that ihe 
load, taking a northerly direction, brought the vast suowy range be- 
fore them in all its magnificence. 

A most splendid fall of water was observed at the head of ihis 
glen ; several streamlets unite a few hundred feet bcluw the line 
of BDow, and falling over a solid wall of rock, make only two 
shoots down to the bed of the X*abur, a distance of about fifteen 
hundred feet. The tirst is the longest, uiid lor some distance 
the waters keep in a tolerably compact mass, but which soon 
separates into while foam ; lower down, even that disappears, and 
before it reaches the ledge could nut be seen at a distance of half 
a mile. It.reapptais at a groat distance below, reuniting in a 
short channel, from whence it makes another shoot to the Pubur- 

On the road to Leeti they came to the region of alternating 
patches of grass and snow, and the '' last trees:" the trees so 
called by courtesy are a few stunted boge patras, a kind of birch, 
that had not yet put forth a leaf. Wherever the snow had lately 
melted, the ground was covered with polyanthuses. The river is 
here covered with a bed of snow to a very great depth. Captain 
Johnson remarks, [hat what he calls a snow-bed corresponds witli 
what in the Alps is called a glacier — the snow-bed of the Pabur 
being larger, but very similar in appearance (o the glacier of the 
lource of the Rhone. 

They approached the Brooang Pass through the snow, only in- 
terrupted by the Pabur, which burst from the suow-bed at an 
elevation of twelve thousand nine hundred and fourteen feet, aud 
fell over a piece of bare rock for about tifly feet. It was again 
immediately lost in the snow. Later in the season, the Pabur is 
said to flow from a clear lake about half a mile wide, which was now 
frozen over and covered with snow. After three hours laborious 
exertion, tliey reached the lop of the pass (fifteen thousand three 
hundred feet). Our travellers had here a most magniticent view. 
On each side, to the noith and south, the snow spread as far as 
ihe eve could reach ■ and east and west rose the peaks of the giant 
I^imma-ieh, to the height of four or five, or as much as seven 
thousand feet above them. Those which were least precipitous, 
clad to the summits in their white shrnuds; others, as Kuldung 
(twenty-one thousand one hundred and three feet), rising in naked 
bareness, their cliffs loo precipitous to afford a resliug-place for 
the snow, and presenting nothing to the eye but vast pyramids 



I 



54 Journey to the Himma^kh Mountains. 

of bare granite^ round which the clouds were fast gathering in 
•ombre array. 

Amid the tbundentorm they were obliged to hurry their way, 
running or skipping down the snow, till, after an hour's toil, in 
which they had gone about six miles, they reached the first trees 
on the north side, and took refuge under a hanging rock. Some 
of the Jaen people alone arrived that evening, bringing with them 
a small tent and some provisions. Some of the coolies came in, 
in a state of stupor, towards night, and the lighting of the fire 
brought in the remaining stragglers. Dr. Gerard was overtaken 
by one of these storms in the Goonass Pass, some miles east of 
this, when he lost two or three of his people, who died of cold, 
and he himself escaped only by indomitable exertion, having the 
flesh fiozen off his toes ; and with the loss of all his mathematical 
instruments, some of which were found the next year. 

In their descent for Brooang, they passed forests similar to what 
occurred on the south side ; and they measured a deodar, which 
was thirty-three in circumference, and from which the branches 
did not spring for a height of between sixty and seventy feet. 
Brooang is a pretty large village, situate at the junction of the 
Bulch utter and Buspa ; the last, a large river, takes its rise foiu* 
marches E.S.E. on the north of the Himma-leh, in Bhurassoo, 
and falls into the Sutluj, ten or twelve miles below Pooari. 

Our travellers were now in Kurawur, according to the natives ; 
the people from the other side call the country the Budh Mooluk, 
—evidently the origin of Budhtar, and consequently the confines 
of I'hibet. This day they saw the first yak which they had met 
with. The road along the river-side was dangerous and difficult, 
every trace of a path being at times obliterated. Near the junc- 
tion of the Buspa with the Sutluj, they crossed the former on a 
sango. The Sutluj was confined between cliffs of vast height, 
and nearly vertical : it was about sixty yards wide. The waters 
were almost w hitened by the quantity of sandy detritus which they 
bore down with them. 

Our party followed a dangerous path on the face of the preci- 
pice to Kallab, a small village in the recess of the bank, surrounded 
by groves of apricots and vines. Out of seventy followers, all but 
twenty absconded from our travellers at this point, from dread of 
further dangers, and prejudices against visiting new countries. 

They passed the village of Barung on a high rock under the 
Harung Pass, and, continuing along a bad path on sandstone, 
came to the beautiful little village of Pooari, situate beneath the 
wild Kuldung — embedded in a growth of apricot, peach, vine, and 
walnut trees ; and still more strikingly luxuriant from the force of 
contrast. 

The Sutluj is here about eighty yards wide, deep, and unin- 



Journey to the Himma-kh Mountains. 55 

lerrupted by rock, but flowin); strongly, and dotted with whirlpools 
■nd backwaters. On the hills opposite, for u ruurlli of the way 
up, vine-trees clothe the rock, carefully trained on trellis-work ; for 
a short way above, were the plaiilatiotts of corn ; higher, and co- 
vering half of the mountain, were llie dork pine forests, and these 
were crowned by a diadem of snow. Below were the villages of 
KooRgy and Telingee, built, as most villages were, on the points 
of clil}s projecting over the river, and shadowed by their deep 
groves of walnut and apricot trees. The inhabitants, like many 
mouutaineer tribes, are extremely dirty in their habits. 

From Pooari our party crossed the river bv a rope-bridge, or 
Jhoola, to Telinga. In travelling thence to the large and popu- 
lous village of Funjee, they lelt the pine forests to enter into 
tracts covered with a kind of wild camomile ; and, after crossing 
a mountain torrent on a sango, reached the village, where they 
halted for two days. 

Their road continued (o the north-east, high above the river, 
and from whence they had some fine views of the snow range j — 
Rulding being most conspicuous. Captain Johnson thought that 
a peak of the same group, though nothing like so rugged in 
aspect, was in reality higher. !t lay between the Sulluj and the 
Buspa ; and over one of its shoulders is the Harung Puss. The 
rocks were full of eyries, and the eagles came down In parties of 
three or four to look at the strangers. 

After the ascent to the Laptok pass, they descended to the bed 
of the Leeaa, which was bridged over with snow, formed by an 
avalanche that came from the top of Oorung Teefa, and hud torn a 
passage for itself through the pine forests of some hundred yards 
wide. There is a well-built wooden hamlet, bearing the same 
name as the stream, on its banks. 

In the next day's journey, lying dne north, tliey met with 
traders in salt, driving south. Sheep and goats aie the oidy beasts 
of burthen in the mountains, and they curry suit or iion in saddle- 
bags, in return for corn. They are attended by large and lierce 
dugs, with long silky black hair. The yak had now become com- 
mon enough ; and they saw on the roud large black-faced apes, 
about three feet and a half high. Our party arrived, through 
beautiful pasture ground clumped with pine-trees, at the village 
of Labrung, about two thousand five hundred feet above the 
SutlnJ. On the opposite side of a ravine was the city of Kannm, 
a very large place, situate on a fine table-bnd, surrounded by rich 
cultivation. The houses were flat-roofed and clustered together; 
some of them seven or eight stories high, and looking like watch- 
towers. The town is eight thousand nine hundred and ninety- 
eight feel above the level of the sea ; and the temperature in the 
shade delightful. There is in this city a Lama temple, and aa 



56 Journey to the Himma4eh Mountains. 

excellent library, said to contain a copy of every work to be found 
in the great library at Teshoo Loombo. Here they met with 
Tcboma da Coxas^ an Hungarian traveller, who was there for the 
purpose of ascertaining the origin of the Huns. He came through 
Persia and the Punjaub ; and some years before this presented 
himself on our frontier, and requested either to be forwarded to 
Ava or to be allowed to reside some years in Thibet. He had 
been in Luddak, and had acquired a knowledge of the language, 
but having become an object of suspicion, he had come south, 
and buried himself in the library at Kanum. He said that he 
had made some curious discoveries, and among others, that he had 
found translations of some of the classics — among the rest m very 
accurate version of Virgil. He was not very communicative, and 
lived the life of a hermit, upon an allowance granted him by the 
Company. 

Our travellers left Labrung on the 23d of June, and began the 
ascent of the Kurung Ghati, and encamped that night at an 
elevation of about thirteen thousand feet. They, this day, to their 
great disappointment, received from the officer commanding at 
Soobathou, Lord Amherst'^s order, prohibiting, in the most positive 
manner, all attempts to proceed beyond the boundary of Hung- 
rung, for fear of exciting the suspicions of the Chinese. The 
next morning they reached the top of the pass (fourteen thousand 
five hundred feet). The snow lay deep on the north side, but did 
not extend far down. In their descent they visited Soongnam, a 
large and populous village, situate in a small cultivated valley, but 
at this time very hot : thermometer rising to 9^** at noon. This 
place is under the Lama theocracy ; and they do not bum, but 
bury their dead, and heap together long piles of stone, with the 
slate inscribed with the ' words of power,' as tributes to the de- 
ceased. The tumuli are arranged with a road on each side, to 
allow travellers to comply with the invariable rule of leaving them 
on the right hand. 

The Durhony and Boukeo rivers unite at this point to form the 
Ruskolang, a tributary to the Sutluj, which river it joins at the 
village of Sheapoo, a Wuzzier's residence. 

They ascended for about two thousand feet from the bed of the 
Boukeo, over a desolate country, the flowering plants of which 
were camomile, mint, and a few other aromatic plants, and the 
shrubs juniper, sweet-briar, and a kind of wormwood ; and then 
proceeded by a winding path to the top of the ghaut (fourteen 
thousand eight hundred feet). Scenery as usual; the rock slaty, and 
mostly covered with snow, and little or no vegetation. A rapid 
descent of three thousand four hundred feet brought them to the 
village of Llango, the inhabitants of which had flat Tatar noses, 
and were clothed in Tatar black and red blankets ; and the Ian- 




Journfy to the Himma-leh Mountains. 57 

guage differed from that hitherto used. Indeed, it had retained 
lome mixture of Htiidoustaiiee only as far as Soongnani. 

Our party approached the village of Tooling, through a slaly 
formation, where the rivulet, whose banks they had been following, 
jotoed the Speett, or great western branch of ilie Suthij. On the 
west were the peaks of the Tuzeegung, or Punjeool, where Gerard 
effected his ascent of nineteen thousand four hundred and eleven 
feel, in 1818, Though much earlier in the season, and conse- 
quenlly in the expectatiuii of great dlfliculties, our party resolved 
upon undertaking this interesting ascent. The tirst village in the 
Speeli is Leo, and around it is some culiivalcd land and native 
vegetation — a rarity in this region of rocks and piecipices. The 
male inhabitants wear club tails, and shoes of tan leather, made 
wry like a tub. They do not Ian leatlier north of Pooari : some 
wiiicii our travellers saw had the Russian mark on it. The hills 
were tilled with yoked sheep. From hence they crossed the 
Si>eeli, or Tulukna, on a sango, and effected an ascent of four 
thuusand feet lo the village of Nako. The rocks around both 
Leo and Is'ako are almost entirely deslitule of vegetation, and lie 
in huge broken masses and " perupt crags," cast about in dis- 
order, as if by the intluence of subterranean force. There are three 
temples built of red brick in Nako, in one of which our travellers 
took up their residence and made their preparations. The natives 
endeavoured to dissuade them by exaggerated accounts of the 
difficulties, and of the dangers ot the " bis " or poisonous wind 
blowing on the snow. 

On the 1st of July, at five o'clock, p.m., they began their 
ascent, and taking their course up a ravine that led from the vil- 
lage, diey turned up the hill to the right, and attained, after an 
hour'a ascent, one of the shoulders of the mountain ; and another 
hour brought tlicm to \^here their tents were pitched, on a level 
spot under a stony ridge that crossed the way. The view from 
this spot was very magniliccnt; and in the stillness of the air, the 
waters of the Speeti and the Sulluj, which the ridge divided, 
could be heard, though about fourteen thousand six hundred feet 
belovv their encampment. Stunted grass and furze grew around. 
They started next morning at six, having waited an hour for the 
sun, and reached in three- quartei^ of hour an extensive table- 
land, the running stieauis thickly covered with ice. In the 
ascent beyond, the snow gave way enough to afford a footing, but 
tometimes so much so as to let them in up to the waist. One of 
the party, Captain Itrowne, sunk nearly to his mouth, and being 
behind was not heard for some time, when he was extricated from 
bb perilous and fearful situation. The snow-bed, after an hour 
and a half's progress, changed its plane from an angle of about 
J5' to one of 75°» rendering farther progress in that direction im- 



58 Journey to the Himma-ldi Mountain9. 

possible. They accordingly veered round to the right, making 
directly up the mountain, and in the first pfirt of the journey ex- 

Eerienced much difficulty from the hardness of the snow. They, 
owever, effected their ascent to the ridge above. When the 
clouds cleared away, they found themselves on the brink of a 
precipice, which, though nearly eight thousand feet above the bed 
of the Sutluj, Captain Johnson thought could not be more than 
five hundred yards horizontal distance. '' It was amusing," our 
traveller remarks, ** to see with what alacrity, when the veil was 
drawn from before them, each recoiled without saying a word, 
and placed the ridge between him and the fringe of snow which 
hung over the precipice like foam on a wave, and from which long 
icicles hung pendent, as they afterwards ascertained by cautious 
explorations on hands and knees.'' 

From hence they advanced along the ridge, the snow affording 
them a good footing ; a narrow strip of rock projecting from this 
ridge like the neck of a bastion, advancing towards the Sutluj, 
which opposite to it made a detour to the east ; and, at the ex- 
tremity of this isthmus, the peak rose in the shape of a cone of 
bare granite, the snow being only lodged on a few ledges and 
breaks in the sides. Our travellers ascended a mound at the 
entrance of the isthmus, where they were on a level with the base 
of the peak. The north-east peak of the mountain, elevated by 
some hundred feet above the latter, was now visible at an hori- 
zontal distance of about two miles; 

Captaiu Johnson had afterwards an opportunity of comparing 
notes with Dr. Gerard, and he felt satisfied that this was the same 
spot as that on which this gentleman made his barometrical ob- 
servations, and nineteen thousand four hundred and eleven feet 
above the level of the sea, the villagers having attempted to 
impose upon him by pointing out a much lower spot in the 
place*. Humboldfs station in the Andes was nineteen thousand 
three hundred and seventy-four : only one man reached this point 
with our European travellers. The villagers grasped their wind- 
pipes in both hands^ and lay down in the snow ; and the nuzzeer 
sepoy, who alone reached the highest station, also complained 
very much. It is remarkable, that our travellers did not suffer 
any inconvenience excepting an occasional difiiculty of drawing 
breath. Even in their night-camp it was almost impossible to 
draw a cigar. They suffered, however, severely from blistering of 
the skin of the face and neck ; and one of the party was snow- 
blind for a few days. 



* The same altitude taken geometrically, in 1821, gave nineteen thousand four 
hundred and forty-two feet. Dr. Gerard has since this explored the pass at the N.B. 
lh>ntier of Khoowawur at an elevation of twenty thousand feet. 



Jaurntij to the Himma-leh Mountains. 



Our party descended from (heir lofty situation in a direction 
diGTerent to their aiceiit, and reached the village in three hours and 
forty minutes from the time ihey left the top. 

The travellers remained at Nako from July 2d to July l^th, 
llie inhabitants of which village were allenlive and oblij^lng. 
They spoke Thibetian, and had high cheek bones and Hat noses; 
sad followed the worship of Lama. The cultivation is the same 
ai in the hills, and the women are mode to do all the hard work. 
The only fruits were gooseberries and apricots ; from the stone of 
the latter they make excellent oil. 

On the 13th they continued their route northwards; — country 
desolate and slony. The slaly-grey plieasant of the hills abounded : 
Captuu Johnson says he never saw it at a less altitude than twelve 
thousand feet, and it retreats higher as the snow melts. On the 
route to Chango, the rocks were rounded and water-worn, as if 
they had been long washed by a toirenl. The vegetation around 
consisted of rose, gooseberry- bushes, some whins, and a few 
stunted cedars. Chango is so surrounded by mountains, that, 
though built in a recess by the river-side, it was insupportably hot. 
Tartary oats were growing around. Wood-guests, and a crow 
with red legs and beak, were met with at the same place. 

They crossed the Speeti, to the north of Chango, and pro- 
ceeded along its banks to Shealkhur, the boundary foot of the 
Bishur country. It is merely a cluster of houses surrounded by a 
high stone wall, situate on a bold brow, conimandmg the passes 
into Luddakl. There was no garrison. The rock around bore 
every appearance of having been subjected to the action of tire, 
either volcanic or the burning of clifis (antliracitous anipetlles, 
with aulpburet of iron). Our author mentions black ashes, earth 
bunit to brick, pieces of tile, and stones welded together — the 
alaly rock being only burnt on the surface. 

Our party left Shealkhur early, and after a tedious ascent of 
about an hour and ten minutes, came into a country characterized 
by low and rounded hills covered with long coarse grass. From 
hence ihey descended into a deep ravine, formed by the Chalo- 
dockpo torrent, and then arrived, along a good road, al Changree- 
jing, an out-farm belonging to Chango. The hills around di- 
minished in ruggedness, but the vegetation consisted merely of 
stunted deodars and a few poplar trees. 

On the 19th they walked out in the direction of ShucktuI, ihc 
lirst village in the Chinese country. The ravines were clothed 
with willow coppices, sweet-briar, and currant-bushes, A pyri>- 
caniha was seen creeping over immense masses of rock. 

They were now, according to the best information they could get, 
within three or four marches of the pasture country, or high steppes 
of Luddakl, Beyond the Chemoreel, about eight days' journey 



60 Journey to the Himma-lch Mountains. 

from this, the lo(v hills are separated from the Valley of the Indus, 
or, as it is called, the Singecho^ by a rugged but not lofty range of 
hills. On the banks of the Indus, and in a fine open valley, is 
the town of Leh, beyond which the hills rise again ; and the know- 
ledge of the guides did not extend beyond a snowy range of moun- 
tains which were said to be higher than the Himma-leh, and to 
which they gave the name of Kailas or Cailas, which signifies 
" heaven." Captain Johnson does not think, that, in advancing 
to the west, they would have met with any opposition to the con- 
tinuation of their journey, and it was with much regret that, in 
obedience to their orders, the party set out on the 20th on their 
return, by Chango, over the Changrung mountain. 

They again reposed themselves at Nako till the 1st of August, 
when they proceeded to Leo, and thence to Hango, having pro- 
vided themselves with mountain ponies. 

From Punjee, whither our travellers proceeded by the road they 
had followed before, they kept along the western bank of the river, 
— passing by Cheeni, a village prettily situated, though dirty in 
itself, and surrounded by the usual fruit-trees — to Khogee, which 
is the limit to which the periodical rains extend ; and beyond 
which vineyards disappear. Their journey here was effected by 
alternate ascents and descents in flights of stairs cut in the solid 
rock, except in one case where they traversed a pine wood. On 
the road to Meru, the path winds along a precipice about four 
thousand feet above the bed of the Sutluj, from which, if a per- 
pendicular were erected, it would pass within one hundred and 
fifty feet of the path, which in many places was scarcely a foot in 
width ; in this respect, very different from the twelve-feet road de- 
scribed by Sir Robert Porter, with so much horror, in the passage 
of the Goodjara in the Caucasus. Nothing but the greatest con- 
fidence and coolness could have brought our travellers in safety 
over such passes, which were very frequent in the mountains, but 
more particularly along the banks of the Sutluj. 

In descending from Meru, they got into the long grass jungle 
again, crossed the Oola Gadh on a sango (in accomplishing 
which one of the sheep fell over and was lost in the stream), to 
the village of Oornee. — Jungle, composed of grass and nettles, 
rising higher than the head. The road continued through woods 
of evergreen-oak to Chegong, where they got fowls and honey. 
They started hence in the rain to the bank of the Sutluj, which is 
here very rocky, and the current rapid ; proceeding along its bed, 
interrupted by a very high rock which they were forced to climb, 
to the bed of the Bobbeh Gadh, estimated by our travellers to have 
a fall of a thousand feet in the single mile of its course that was 
visible. Beyond this they arrived at the made road, or artificial 
causeway, which was a great relief. The rocks which they had 




Jottmeij to the Himma-!eh Moitnlaint. 6l 

latieilv been travelling amongst were slaiy and of a soft texture. 
They now crossed the SulUij on a tine broad sango, from which 
ihej ascended to the village of Nachan. From Nachun they 
travelled through deep brushwood, eight or nine feet high, by the 
liltle village of Sooitgra, which has a small Chinese temple of 
carved wood in it; crossed ihe Boorhee Gadh, making three fine 
falls within sight, and ascended towards Tranda. On the ascent. 
Captain Johnson nearly lost his pony, his hind legs having gone 
o»er tlie precipice. In a deodar wood by the load-side, they saw 
great abundance and variety of monkeys. 

The road descended from Tranda, and then again made alter- 
nate ascents and descents to Tuarra, which they passed through, 
and descended, seven thousand Iwo hundred and forty-etght feet, 
10 Seram. where they encamped near (he rajah's palace, which our 
traveller compares to an English bam adorned wilh gilt ornaments. 
The ftfaawl goals, which they had brought with ihem from the moun- 
tains, were suffering much from the heat, and many were already 
dead. On leaving Seram, our travellers found ihe bridge swept 
awajr from over a torrent towards which they proceeded, and by 
the side of which, amid heat and vapour, they liad to stay nearly 
five -hours while a temporary aango was made. After the ascent 
on the other side, (hey had a delightful walk, through woods of 
various and beautiful trees, to Goura Koii, where they took up 
iheir quarters in the verandah of a tomb. Country around culti- 
vated, or covered with pine forests. 

The nest day they arrived at Rampore, the capital of Bishnr, 
built on tlie bank of the Sutluj, in a cavity of glittering rock, 
which renders it one of the hottest places in the north of India, 
The houses are built in squares, each house inclosing a court- 
yard, with verandaiis and galleries round it. They are roofed with 
large blue slates, very thick, and laid loosely upon the rafters. 

On Ihe 14th, they marched to Diituugger, the road chietly level, 
and the hills rounded and low ; from whence, in proceeding to 
Kotgbur, they took by mistake the road by Cohmarsein, a village 
on a ridge between two valleys which came down from the Naig 
Kunda Pass, and constitute the dominions of a petty rana, who 
is much esteemed among the hill-chiefs. Our travellers were 
invited by the chieftain's son, in English, to stay at his father's 
house, but Ihey preferred going on to Kutghur, which they reached 
after a tiresome and long day's juurney. Here they were received 
at the house of Captain Gerard, which was beautifully situated 
on the side of a cultivated mountain, clothed in the upper part 
with pine forests. It was about seven thonsand eight hundred 
feel above the sea, and four thousand above tlie bed of the Sutluj ; 
tiiermomeler never rising above (ij°, and the snow only lying 



I 




62, Journey to the Himma-leh Mountains. 

during a month or six weeks, at a depth of three or four feet. 
Bears were numerous in the woods, leopards were often seen, and 
hyenas were very common and peculiarly daring. Captain Gerard 
had two gardens, one on the banks of the river and the other at 
his house ; in the one he cultivated European vegetables, and ia 
the other the plants of India. 

Having rested for a few days at Kotghur, our party started, 
through wild pine woods, to the Naikgunda Pass ; on the top of 
which was a bungalow for the accommodation of travellers. The 
pass is elevated nine thousand and sixteen feet above the sea. 
They were delayed some time at Naikgunda by the perverseness 
of the coolies or porters. Our traveller complains bitterly of 
the difficulties which they met with, and the bribery and corrup- 
tion that is practised, in the territory of the Company, and which 
is not met with on the hills. On this subject he remarks, with 
much justice, that the stupendous journey of Dr. Gerard and the 
labours of Moorcroft sufficiently attest that our ignorance of the 
remainder of this most interesting country must be entirely attri- 
buted to a want of exertion on the part of the authorities, and to 
the little encouragement that is held out by them to undertakings 
of an exploratory character. 

They now proceeded to the bungalow of Muttiana, which stands 
high on a bare point above the village of the same name, where 
they found the quills of porcupines. Thence they proceeded 
along the crest of the ridge, from which they had a fine view of 
the mountains behind them. Viewed at a distance, says our tra- 
veller, sufficient to obtain a comprehensive sight, the chain appears 
to maintain a nearly equal height in the great masses, but about 
every tenth peak shoots up, mostly in a sharp or angular form, 
terminating in an aiguille, which would be inaccessible even if its 
base rested on the plains. Many of these peaks lean over to the 
north-west, as if moved from the perpendicular by a force acting 
in the same direction, forming an angle of little more than 45*" 
with the horizon. 

Passing by Phago and the mountain of Choor (twelve thousand 
six hundred feet) in Sirmoor, they reached Semlah, where there 
are some good houses on the Jacko Ridge, which are pleasantly 
situated in woods of rhododendrons, and are recommended by our 
travellers for summer residences ; though thunder-storms, of great 
violence, are said to be frequent. Hence they marched to Lairee, 
from which they had their first view of the plains over Sabathoo. 
Passed the fort and village of Hurreepore, to arrive at the latter 
town, which is surrounded by sandy and desolate hills, and is a 
station for a Ghoorkha battalion. The village is much infested 
by snakes and centipedes ; the most common of the former is th^ 




Journey to Ihe Himma-leh Mouniaint, 63 

tpecticte MMke, or cobra dj capello, the lethargic effect of whose 
Inle is 90 well known. Esgles, not to be compared in size to the 
gtinil, are very common ; and vultures and while kites abound, 
H on the plains. 

On the 1st of October, our travellers made their last march on 
lUcM hills, the country gradually becoming less wild as they ap- 
piotched the spot where the mountains were lost in the plains of 
Ihe low country. On the same evening they left tliese tine lofty 
rrgtons with heavy hearts ; and entering their palkees, whicii they 
ftMiad at Bshor, Uiey commenced their Journey through the alter- 
nating Moda and jungle of the north of India. 

HEMABKB. 

Dacrifitive Gtograpky. — The great chain of the Himma-leh moun- 
tain* extends in a direction from N. W. to S. p]. for al>out SOOO 
British miles. Its continuation to the west, called in modern times 
the Hiiidi>o Coosh, or Indian Mountain (by De Humboldt considered 
u the prolongation of the Kuen-lun), was the Emodus of the Muce- 
doniana and the Imaus of Pliny, and was in those days, perhaps, also 
called Himms-leh, aa the Greek title w&s borrowed from the Sans[;rit. 

The culminating points of the chain of the Himma-leh are known 
to itMin BD elevation exceeding SS.OOO feet. The lowest of the 
puses, the Tungrunt;, is l.S,73<J, and the iofuest, to the N. E. of 
Khoonawur, is 80,000 feet, which would give a relation of the mean 
height of minimum of crest to the culminating point of ) : l.fij^. JM 
Humboldt found it some years back as 1 : 1.8. 

The Himma-leh, in ils prolongation eastward, is, according to 
Cdonel Kirkpalrick, called Humla to the north of Yuraila, and beyond 
the Arun, according to Hamilton's map attached to the History of the 
Gorkhawar, the Harpala Mountains. Ktaproth and Abel Remusat 
haTe collected from Chinese writings the continuation of the chain in 
sntnr-clad peaks to the west of Young-tchan. These turn abruptly to 
the north-west on the confines of Hou-Kouang, advancing ultimately, 
— according to De Humboldt, who seeks in descriptive geography for 
the e»idence of the elevation of mountain-chains on longitudinal 
finurea, — into the sea, at the volcanic island of Formosa. 

Geolosj/. — In geology and mineralogy, the observations which Cap- 
tunJohnson has made assist in corroborating the previous information 
that had beenobtainedof the structure of this great Alpine chain, and 
which appears to present much variety in composition, and phenomena 
that are in accordance with what has been observed in othe' 
ll would result from the facts recorded by Hodgr^on, Fraiei 
and our traveller, that granite is more particularly coiBi 
foot of the mountains, and thus, probably, constitutes the 
pfaflin. It has been asserted, that the predominar 
UinuD3-leh gave to it a secondary constilutio' 
predominance been established, nor, if it had, i 
the primitive and crystalline character of the I 



L 




64 Journey to the Himma-leh Mountains. 

of the chain. From the plains — through the first and second ranges 
of hills — to the great chain itself, there appears to be a series of 
bands of supermedial rocks succeeded by sandstones and limestones, 
and transition rocks (clay-slates and ampelites) reposing alternately 
on mica slate, gneiss, or granite. In the centre of the chain there 
are masses of limestone and intermediary rocks locked here and there 
in upraised crystalline formations (as the sandstones on the northern 
slope) ; and these crystalline rocks are found bearing upon their 
elevated summits and indented ridges rocks of a very modern forma- 
tion. Thus sandstone has been found at 16,700 feet, ammonites in 
limestone at 16,500 feet, limestone at upwards of 20,000 feet, and 
Captain Johnson found clay in the Hungrung pass at 14,000 feet. 
This elevation of sedimentary rocks, with organic remains or the 
detritus of former worlds, upon the summits and acclivities of the 
loftiest mountains in the world, is what is also met with in the high 
Alps of Europe, both in Switzerland and in the Pyrenees, and the 
character of these formations, the number of them which have been 
raised up, and the age of the external beds (in geognostic chronology) 
indicate the epoch of the elevation of the mountain-chain as compared 
with others, and has been further observed with regard to the influence 
which the same relative age had on the direction of the chain as com- 
pared to the meridians or parallels of our own spheroid. Captain 
Burnes has also found the geological character of the Hindoo Ck>osh 
to be pretty similar to what we know of the Himma-leh, namely, 
that the loftiest peaks are composed of granite or gneiss, with 
associated mica slate, and quartz rock, and intercalated uplifted or 
outlying conglomerates, sandstones, and limestones, white and sacha- 
roidal in the chain, shelly in the plains. 

Zoology. — What Captain Johnson has remarked upon the distribution 
of the few animals met with during a merely exploratory journey cor- 
responds with the little that is known of the zoology of these almost 
inaccessible wilds. 

The yak, which our traveller often alludes to, is the Bos peophagus. 
Bos grunniens of old writers, the grunting ox of Shaw and Pennant. 
It is domesticated over a vast tract of country from the Altaic moun- 
tains to the central part of India, and even a great portion of China. 
It pastures, according to Turner, on the coldest parts of Thibet upon 
the short herbage peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains. 
This animal is of great value to the Tatar tribes. It is an excellent 
beast of burden, and its milk is abundant, and very productive both of 
butter and cheese. The horse tails used as standards by the Persians 
and Turks are made of the hair of their tails, and chowries or fly 
drivers, employed in India, are formed of the same material. Hamilton 
calls them changri cattle. The bull is named yak ; the cow, dh^. 

The ghurl or wild goat (Capra eegagrus) is considered by most natu- 
ralists as the parent of the domestic varieties of the goat tribe. In 
this case, which is yet doubtful, the Cashmere goat, the Thibet goat 
(Capra Jemlahica, Ham. Smith), and Blainville's Capra cossus, and 



Journey to the Himma-hh Mounluins. Gi 

the Nepaul goat would be only varieties. Mr. James Wilson, who 
has specially devoted his attention to the originals of our domestic 
tnimals, (Quart. Journ. of Agriculture. Edinburgh,) is of opinion that 
the goat of the Jem!ah chain catmot be referred to the Capra x^gagrus 
of Pailas. 

AiDong the deer tribe, Captain Johnson uses native appellaUons, 
which we have liad a difficulty in referring to our natural historical 
classifications. It may be well to briefly enumerate the recognized 
species of this tribe inhabiting the chain of the Himmah-leh or its 
inunHiate neighbourhood. Among the Moschinesp, the niusk deer, 
Moscua moMchiferus, le of the Chinese. Musk is chiefly obtained from 
Thibet, probably more from the commercial enterprise of the inha- 
bitants than the predominance of the tnuak deer In the mountainous 
regions of that country. Our traveller found the accumulated bones 
of iieveTa] species at the foot of a clilT near Jumnotree. Among the 
Cerrineie — the Nepaul stag (Cervus Wallichii) of a yellowish brown 
grey, with a large pale-coloured disk upon the croup. The black deer — 
also met tvith in the hills of Nepaul. This is the Cervus Aristotelis 
of DuvBQcet, and one species of the Capreolinie, the Cervus capreolus, 
frequenting the crags and ravines of the frontier. Of the antilopes, 
probably a g;reat number may be found in regions )}Ossessing so much 
variety of climate, A remarkable species, the citiru, (Antilope kemas. 
Smith,) which has been looked upon, from having frequently only 
one bom, as the origin of monocerotea, licorne.s, or unicorns, and the 
goral of the Himma-leh (Antilope goral, Hardwicke, Lin. Traos. vol. 
xiv.) In allusion to iheTetraceri of Leach, Wilson asks, "Is the Anti- 
lope quadricornis distinct from the Antilope chickara T' If from the 
examination made by Blainviile of a cranium from India, the anterior 
boms are straight in the one and curved a little backwards in the other, 
thehinderones straight in the former and curved forwards in the latter, 
there are probably two specie.", the striated character of the base 
belonging only to the latter. Hence we should have, as Lesson has 
adopted, the Antilope quodricornb and Antilope chickara — the Tetra- 
cerus striaticornis of Leach. 

The nyl-ghau (blue ox) — (Antilope picta) is a vicious and remark- 
able animal, of which several specimens have lately been exhibited in 
this country, and has hence become familiar. 

Of the birds noticed by Captain Johnson, we have only to remark, 
that the gurrit, which he was inclined to look upon as a condor, was, 
no doubt, the lammer-geyer (Gypoetus barbatus), whose geographical 
range is so extensive, and of which a specimen, according to Mr. 
Jamea Wilson, has been transmitted to the Edinburgh Museum from 
the Himma*leh mountains. The chuccorce, according to Hamilton, 
is the Perdix rufa, or P. rubra, Brisson, The cuckoo (Cuculus 
canorus), which our traveller heard in the mountains, was also noticed 
by Turner in Bhootan (Embass. p. 67). The southern acclivities 
of the mountain range are the abode of two very beautiful birds, 
the Impeyan pheasant or monaul (Lophophorus refulgens), and 
VOL. IV. P 



G(i Journey to the HimmO'leh Mountains. 

tho horned pheasant (trapogan), of which Mr. Gould has figured a 
now ipccies— ** Century of Birds, &c.'' The red-legged crow observed 
on the Spocti was, no doubt, the Coracias graculus (Pyrrho corax, 
Tem. Frcgilus, Cuvier,) and the wood-quests or wood-pigeon the tame 
as our own bird. On this subject it may be remarked, that not even 
in tli0 vegetable kingdom do the number of analogies presented 
between the productions of the temperate climates of the mountains 
of central Asia and the ]^lains and hilly regions of our own latitudes 
exceed in interest and in importance what is contained in the striking 
identification of the birds of the Himma-leh with those of western 
Europe. Flies, resembling the sand-fly and similar to what Captun 
Johnson's party were incommoded by on the Pabur, are mention^ by 
Tumor as occurring about Murichom, where most of the people were 
marked by tliem. 

yvtfttation, — ^The teak (Tectona grandis), mentioned by Captain 
Johnson as composing, with the leesoo and some pines, the vegetadon 
of tho iunglo ot tho Deyrah Dhoon, belongs to the natural fiunily of 
tlu) verbonaccie, is one of the largest Indian trees, and is valuable 
fur its t'xcollent timl>cr. The vegetation of these jungles appears to 
vary very much in their trees and shrubs as well as in their granuneous 
plantn. In nearly tho same latitudes in the Taryani or plain regions 
of Nc|mul, tho nu)st common trees are the Falas (Erythema mono- 
sporniu) and tho simul (Bombax heptaphyllum. Lam.). The lower part 
of tho hilly rogion of No|>aul, and some of the adjacent plains, are the 
scat of tho saul forests (Shorea robusta, Roxburgh). 

Tho mango (Maugifera Indica) is a large tree with foliage some- 
what resembling a chestnut It constitutes (Greville, in Hist, and De- 
scrip. AiHTOunt of British India, voL iii. p. 165) one of the most fre- 
quent and pleasing features in Indian landscape. According to Forbes, 
mango and tamarind tr^es are usually planted when a village is built. 

Tho jack (Artivarpus integritolia) is a larger tree than its generic 
•Mooiute, tho biead-truit trei? (^A. inci$a\ the trunk, according to 
Hoxhui-gh. being fi\>m eight to twelve feet in circumference. Tlie 
fruit iii not nuioh esteonunl as an article of diet, though the natives of 
I'oyUmi eat it fnvly (Greville^ lib. oil,), and it is a common food 
among tho IUuK>tanj^ (.Turner. Emb. to Thibet). 

Iho i;ix>\vth of trees and plants and of fruit-bearing trees, analogous 
and oven similar to tho^e met with in our own climate, among the 
mountains of tho Hiinma*loh. has now been established by accurate 
luktiinioiil rosea r\*he$. We tind the narrauve of Captain Johnson 
alHMindnig in notices of gr^ives ot aprioots« walnuts, peaches, cherries, 

tu'iii!«« and ai^plost. and tl:o ooourrer.oe of currants* goo^berriea, bar- 
ren ion, utiawlHTrie*, rasnlvrries ana other fruits 

Tho trooH nuKtt abuiulant a: the uv^t of the hills were oaka, holly, 
rhordnutjiornboani. laurt>ls, birvrhes; hicher up. pines v^Pinus longifolia, 
kv), and deodars 0^i<)^*^ dcvxiiir'^. Tr.e Crests of rhododendrons 
(HhodiHlondnm arborcunO v^xre )\an:oulArly beautinii: wUte varieties, 
l\>und by Pr. Wallich \>u Shcopur. in Nefjiul, at an elevation of 10,000 



Journey to ike Himma-lek Mountains. 



67 



feett were met with by Captain Johnson at the pass of Laptok. 
Silver fir, hazel, jasmine, and gum cistus are also mentioned in the 
narratire. Some tracts were covered by a yellow-flowering composite 
plant like camomile; willow shrubs, observed by our traveller — accord- 
ing to Turner, ^rew ou the banks of the Tchintchiaaod with the pepul 
tree (Picus Indica) around the village of Bhootau. Roses were oc- 
casionally met with. Saunders (Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxis.] mentions 
Roaa Alpina, R. centifolia. R. canins, R. Indica, and R. apmossisima, 
u growing among the hills to the east. Dr. Gerard mentions three 
spedes of rhododendron, one flourishing at a height of from 6000 to 
10,000 feet, bearing a large red flower ; the second from 11,000 to 
13,000 feet, ivith a delicate pink blossom ; the third species attains to 
14,000 feet, but in the guise of a shrub. 

The grains used in these hills ore barley and wheat, red and yellow 
bhattoo (Amaronthus anardhana), cheenah (Panicum miliaceum),and 
kboda (Paspalum scrobiculatum). The ooa (Hordeiim celeste) and 
phapur (Panicum Tartaricum) flourish at an elevation of upwards of 
13,000 feet. It is quite erroneous to say that grapes will not grow 
on the Hindoostanee side of the range of the Himma-leh (Major 
Archer's Tour in India) ; greensward and plots of graminse begin to 
make their appearance immediately at the foot of the hills. 

Corn is said, at the southero side, not to be cultivated at anelevadon 
exceeding 10,000 feet. Gerard mentions poor and scanty corn at 
13,600. There were fields of rye and buckwheat at the temple of 
Mileum, according to Captain Webb, at an elevation of lI.Msfeet. The 
ipikenardwas found by the same observer at 13,000 feet. Strawberries 
and currant buehes in blossom, June Slst, lI,{i8D ; buttercups and 
dandelions 12,642 ; a campanula was gathered in seed by Gerard, at 
Shetool pass, at an elevation 16,800 feet. Captain Johnson found 
furze and greensward at 14,600. Hills of 5000 feet were clothed to 
the top with wood. At Bhootan, turf or peat bog 789S feet. Pass of 
Seeti, polyanthus at 11,000 feet. Apple trees above Kanum S998 feet. 
The punjeol was cultivated to a height of 13,700 feet; above was 
greensward and furze to 14,600 feet. Horse chestnut and poplar trees 
grew at Rhogee at an elevation of 9090 feet. According to Captain 
Bumes, the whole range of tite Hindoo Coosh is entirely destitute 
of wood — presenting a striking contrast in that respect to the 
EHmma-leb. 

Phyiical Geography. — The dripping-rock of Sansadarrah, described 
by Captain Johnson, resembles what is presented to ua in limestone 
formations in our own country, and sometimes in sandstone rock, 
when one of the chief beauties — the pendent stalactites — are absent. 
The spring of Sansadarrah is perhaps upon a larger scale, and sur- 
rounded by more magnificent scenery than any similar springs that 
have been described. The dripping-rock of Knaresborough is an 
example of these springs in our own country. There is a small one 
at Roalin, near Edinburgh, which is instructive in pointing out that 
vegetation of MarchantiEe, Jmigergiigiii^, fee., which grows in dif- 





68 Joumet/ to the Himma-leh Mountains. 

ferent degrees of hamidity from continued streams to drops, or a 
mere misl or humid atmosphere. It has often struck us, that arti- 
ficial grottoes with stalactites might be made in limentone districts, 
by dividing a rivulet or the branch of a rivulet over misshapen or 
irregular mosses of rock and stones, piled together like a dome-shaped 
edifice. Much value is attached to the introduction of a Lobelia ; why 
might not mineralogy he brought to further the improvement of 
landscape and ornamental gardening 1 

Captain Johnson describes the waters of the Jumna as of a deep 
and almost inky-hue colour. This was at a distance of not much more 
than thirty miles from its sources ; and snow was lying in patches on 
the hills around. This is of importance, because observations on the 
colour of waters, where they may be supposed to be in their purest 
state, where they flow from mountains covered with perpetual snow, 
and where the earth is destitute of vegetation and of alluvial soil, are 
much wanted. " Nothing," says De Humboldt, " proves that waters 
are white;" and in situations such as we allude to, naturalists are 
most inclined to think that the colour of water is blue or green. A 
late eminent chemist was inclined to look upon the tints of the sea as 
ovring to the presence of iodine. If rivers contain a colouring prin- 
ciple, it is so little in quantity, that it eludes all chemical research. 
It has been further remarked, that the tints of reflected light, the co- 
lour of which comes to us always from the interior strata of the fluid, 
and not from the upper stratum, are generally very different from the 
tints of transmitted light ; particularly when this transmission takes 
place through a great portion of fluid, which would be the case in 
very pure waters. The variety presented in the coloration of rivera 
is very great; we have merely ventured to point out the bearing of our 
traveller's ohservation to one order of considerations. De Humboldt 
asks if the Aquas negras of South America may not be coloured by 
a carburet of hydrogen ; which will remind the reader of Doctor Mac- 
culloeh's ingenious comparison of the extractive vegetable matter 
which becomes soluble, in the transformation of plants into peat, to 
the torrefaction or roasting of coffee. 

A spring is described as containing sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
depositing sulphur, even in the bottom and deep waters of the well. 
Humboldt supposed, in an inptance of this kind (springs of Bergantine 
in Cumana), that the atmospheric air in the water was decomposed 
by the sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen being delivered. The re- 
searches of Professor Daubeny on the thermal waters of Bath led 
him to believe that the large proportions of nitrc^en evolved in those 
springs is not derived from the atmospheric air. 

The heat which the hydrosulphurous springs of the New World 
acquire in the interior of the globe were found to diminish in propor- 
tion as they passed from primitive to superposed formation. This is 
in consonance with what is now known of the progressive refrigera- 
tion of the earth's crust. Native sulphur has also been found depo- 
■tting itself in crevices in crystalline primary rocks, the temperatare 



Journey to the Himma-lek Mountains. 69 

ofirhich was higher ihan the mean temperature of the surrounding 
atmosphere. There is nothing, then, in this abundant evolution of 
mtrogen that militates against ihe opinions enlertained on its geae- 
ntioii by the first-mentioned phiiusopher. 

Thermal ipringi abound so much in the Himma-leh mounting, 
that our traveller says that they were of almost daily occurrence, 
lie celebrated springs of Jumnotree depositing oxide of iron, and 
issuing from caverns of snow, have, according to Hodgson, a tempe- 
rature of 1 94° Fahrenheit ; which, considering the elevatbn, 10,8*9 
feet, is nearly the boiling point of water : — they issue from granite. 
Kor far from the same spot. Captain Johnson mentions the occurrence 
of a spring that would boil rice. The occurrence of tliese thermal 
waters in crystalline rocks is a fact of much geological importance, 
more especially when we thus find them distributed through moun- 
tain chains, which appear to bear upon their elevated acclivities sedi- 
mentary formations of little antiquity, and which appear in modern 
times to be still the focus of subterranean movements, and of de- 
rangements in the earth's crust. Captain Hodgson experienced slight 
movements in the earth at his visit to Gangootri ; our traveller notices 
ihe destruction of the Fort of Djennc by an earthquake in 1803 ; and 
Captain BurneS felt violent shocks at Lahore in February, 19S2. 
How modern may be the elevation of water-worn rocks accurately 
described by Captain Johnson, as occurring on the acclivities of the 
mountains between Nako and Change, on the Speeti. and which ap. 
pearances extend over a large tract of country ? Everything, indeei' 
would lead us to believe that changes have taken place inthecoi 
figuration of the soil in the neig'hbourhood of the Himma-leh at con 
paratively a late period. The Brahmins assert, to the present day, 
that Cashmere was but lately covered with water, forming, as it were, 
a lake. Bemier, a Frenchman, who Ih said to have travelled in Cash- 
mere in the reign of Aurengzebe, first collected facts in evidence of 
this tradition (Description de I'lnde, par Anqut!til du Perron. Berlin, 
1787). Professor Ehrenberg has ascertained the existence of the 
royal Bengal tiger in the steppes of the Kirghese and of the high 
Irtyche, in the present day ; and this fact, De Humboldt has ably 
pointed out, connects itself with the discovery of the bones of ele- 
phants at the mouth of the Lena and at Escholtz Bay, in evidencing a 
gradual change of temperature and the little antiquity of the last 
revolutions of the soil in Asia. The researches which these able tra- 
vellers have lately been carrying on, of the relation between the vol- 
canic phenomena of central Asia and the striking geognustic traditions 
of the Chinese, with the great lowering of the soil around the Caspian 
Sea and the epochs of the upraising of the different mountain -chains 
of Asia, attach themselves to considerations of this kind. 

The emaracl which Captain Johnson observed at the head of the 
glen near the sources of the Pabur equals in interest any falls with 
which geographers are acquainted. The Ruikan Foss, the highest 
cascade known, is composed of three falls, one of which is 800 feet 
high. Our traveller eBtimates the two falls of the Pabur at 1500 



70 Jourrtftj to the Himma-leh Mountains. 

feet; the Chute tie Gavaraie, the loftiest eingle fall, is 1160 feet. 
The dispersion of the water before it reaches the g^round has already 
been made known from obserrations made in Mexico ; and a still 
more curious phenomenon in recorded of the river Malkan, at the 

[ feot of Elburus, where no current of water is said to be perceived, 
it the sheet is separated, and drops in isolated masses. 
" ThemowJ-ftedsof the Himma-leh," says Captain Johnson, "are the 

[ glaciers of European Alps." That is to say, the constitution of the 
§reat masses of snow that lie in the glens, at the head of the valleys 
ind the acclivities of mountain -groups, are rot accumulations of loose 
snow, but meited and frozen again, sometimes nearly compact and 
massive, at oilier times porous and even cavernous ; and where, as 
flamond has remarked in the Pyrenees, in a vertical section, the hot 
summers may be distinguished by the thin and transparent bands, and 
the mild summers by the porous ice, and these again differ from the 
ice and snow of winter. 

Our traveller fiirther remarks upon the absence of snow from the 
loftiest and most perpendicular peaks of the Himma-leh range. It had 
been already observed by Von Buch, (Travels in Norway, p. 153,) 
that to produce glaciers it is not enough that mountains enter the 
region of perpetual snows, they must be preserved there by means of 
a considerable space, for an insulated high mountain and a small 
fcjiain of mountains can never collect so much ice in one place as is 
necessary to drive forth a glacier from the upper regions to waim 
valleys. The glaciers or snow-beds on the acclivities of mountains 
resemble icicles that melt at their eittremity, but the snow-beds of the 
heads of valleys impel new masses of ice downwards ; — the rate of 
whose progress, Saussure has remarked, may be measured by the 
march of the moraines. 

The limits of congelation in the Himma-leh mountains were placed 
by a writer in the Quarterly Review a^ low as 11,000 feet. This 
would be very little above the lowest height at which snowfalls in 
the same latitudes, which De Humboldt (Personal Narr., vol, i. 
p. 129) places in 20° N, lat. at 3020 metres. Captain Webb esti- 
mated the line of eternal snows at 13,500 feet: Frazer at from 
1.5,000 to 16,000 feet. Captain Hodgson found the Bagiruttee, on the 
Slst of May, issuing from a snow bed. About the same lime of the 
year. Captain Hodgson, and on the ISih of May, 1887, Captain 
Johnson, visited the sources of the Jumna, also issuing fromCaptain 
of snow, at an elevation of 10,840 feet ; and in November, Captain 
Webb found the Gauri bursting from the snow at an elevation of 
1 l,5t3 feet ; but these were all snow-beds or glaciers pushed on by 
the inexhaustible stores of the mountains. It was a pretty idea of 
Hodgson, that the hot springs of Gangoutree and of Jumnotree were 
there to provide water in winter, by the melting of the snow around. 
The notion is, however, more amusing than philosophical. According 
to theory, the height of the snowline between latitudes 27° and 35° 
would be 11,400 feet. The facts which oppose themselves most to 
this deduced elevation are the observations of Webb, Gerard, &ec., on 



Journey to the Himma-leh Mountains. 7i 

the altitude at which habitable spots and even villages are met with, 
Bod on the physical aspect of these elevated regions. Thus the first 
of these observers found the Sutlej Rowing in a plain 14,924 feet 
above the sea, and surrounded by fine pasture land. The facts 
which have been noticed in the distribution of veg^etable rormsi while 
they also militate against the low descent of constant snows, assist in 
giving Bome idea of the diversity of climate which is presented by 
these mountains. In multiplying observations on this subject, it 
would be of importance to distinguish between observations made at 
the head of transverse valleys and those made on the acclivities of 
mountains, or on highly inclined planes or isolated peaks and ridges, 
as well as Jo the plains. These circumstances — the configuration of 
the Boil, like the direction of chains of mountains, and the diaphanous 
character of the air (Humboldt), which at once increases the radi- 
ation of the plains, and the power of transmission of the radiated 
heat — the conducting power of the rock or soil — the clear exposure 
or unshadoived aspect of the surface, or the circular arrangement of 
glens with mural precipices, influence the temperature both of the 
hmI and air of the station, and lead, from their neglect, to erroneous 
deductions in the inferior limit of the snow-line. Jacquemont had 
already attributed the inequality in the height of the snow-line on the 
two sides of the Himma-leh to the serenity of (he climate of the plains 
of Ladauk, and the foggy climate that reigns in the Hindoostaa 
aide, De Humboldt, in his extended view of the climate of Asia, 
(Fragmens de Oi^ologie et de Climalologie Asiatiqucs, tom. li.) has 
participated in these ideas. The character of an eixessive climate, he 
thinks, is shown in tliis peculiarity in the lower limit of the snow-line; 
that even in the Caucasus itis 850 to 300 toises higher than in the same 
latitude in the Pyrenees. TTiis accurate physical geographer gives 
for the limit of snows in the Himma-leh, lat. 30j° 31°, for the southern 
slope 1950 toises, and the northern slope 2600 toises. " This great 
elevation of the limit of perpetual snow," he remarks, " lieHveen 
the chains of the Himma-leh and of the Kuenlun, between the S\° 
and 38° of latitude, and perhaps towards the north-east, in still more 
elevated latitudes, is a kind provision of nature. By offering a more 
extensive field for the _deveiopment of organic forms for pastoral life 
and agriculture, this elevation of the zone of snow and this radiating 
power of the Thlbetiau plwns render inhabitable in Asia, to people of 
a mystic and sombi'e physiognomy, of a religious and industrious 
civilization, — an Alpine zone, that, in the equinoxial regions of 
America, in a more southerly latitude, would be buried under the 
■DOW, or exposed to cold winds which would entail the destruction of 
all cultivation." 



I 




C 72 ) 



y.— Hints on the Suhject of Geographical Arrangement and 

Nomenclalvre. — Coiniiuiiiicatetl by Colonel Jackson, F.R.G.S, 

(St. Petersburgh). KL'ad 24lh March, 1834. 
Actuated by an ardent desire for tlie advancement of geo- 
graphical science, and unable, from the stationary siliiation I now 
hold, to contribute to its progress by anything new in ihc way of 
travels, I shall venture to draw the attention of the Royal Geo- 
graphical Society to a subject which I have ever reganfed as of 
considerable importance ; — 1 mean ihe systematic arrangement of 
tlie objects of the science, the establishment of a precise and 
comprehensive nomcnclalure, and the further improvement of 
maps. 

No period certainly was ever so favourable for sucli an under- 
taking as the present. Geography, long considered puerile, h.-is 
at length received from philosophers the degree of attention it so 
justly merits; and from the societies now formed for the special 
purpose of its progress, civilized nations expect that guidance 
which shall lead by the shortest and surest road to a perfect 
knowledge of the globe; and not only do they expect guidance, 
but they are willing to be led, provided due regard be paid to 
such customs as, from long continuance, have settled into habits 
not easily overcome. 

Hence the establishment of a delinite order and nomenclature 
can meet with no other obstacle than that which arises from the 
difficulty of amalgamating the new wants of the science with its 
old habil»,— a difficulty certainly great, but by no means insur- 
mountable. To this object, therefore, I would invite the atten- 
tion of my learned colleagues, convinced that when they shall 
have produced a syatcn), it would, at their reconimendalion, be 
readily adopted by travellers, vi' hose works, now universally read, 
would soon render it popular. 

By a system, I mean only such a methodized arrangement of 
facts and objects already known as shall serve to render our 
acquaintance with them more complete, our notions more precise. 
Unfortunately no science, perhaps, presents greater diHiculties to 
an exact classitication than geography, for in no one are the ob- 
jects which compose it so naturally indefinite iu their limits. A 
natural order, on the one hand, seems almost impossible, while, 
on the other, it is diSicull in many cases to seize upon such 
characteristics as shall determine our choice in an artificial 
arrangement; and when to this disadvantage we add the invete- 
rate tenacity with which men in general cling to long-established 
usage, it will appear evident that nothing short of the niaturest 
deliberation, and the united judgment of many, can accompliBh 
the arrangement of a method likely lo be adopted. 



ATratigcment and Nomenclature . 73 

Thus, ihougli 1 would strongly urge ihe necessity of ihe under- 
tikiiig, I shall by no means disguise ils ditlicullies. On llie 
contrary, I ihink, ihey cannot be too prominently set forth at 
ooce, in order that those who enter upon the task may come (o 
it fully prepared to struggle against all obstacles, and hence be 
the more certain of success. 

In order to explain the nature of the difficulties to which I 
allude, I shall instance the case of rivers ; an object taken at 
random, and the first that presents itself to my mind, 

A large stream, if traced upwards from its mouth along its 
several affluent rivers to the smallest streamlets which bring their 
little gurgling tribute, bears considerable resemblance to a tree. 
The several bifurcations and canals which form the deltas of 
many rivers may be compared to the roots, from which, as we 
proceed, springs the trunk, and from this the larger branches, 
which in turn ramify into subordinate branches and sprigs, and 
finally into what may be likened lo fibres or tenninal tendrils. 

Xf we except the root-like appearance produced by deltas, 
which do not always exist, it will be found that large and small 
rivers have precisely the same kind of distribution, and only diflfer 
ill the size, number, and direction of their parts. The small are 
miniatures of the large, both bearing to each other the same re- 
lation which a young tree does to a full-grown one. The trunk of 
the former mav be smaller in all its dimensions than even a sub- 
ordinate or secondary branch of the latter, but the young tree is 
nevertheless perfect in all ils parts. It is, therefore, the position 
and direction of the parts which constitute them trunk or branch, 
and not their absolute dimensions. The same reasoning holds 
good of rivers ; so that, if each part had a specific name, these 
names would apply alike to streams of very different dimensions. 
So far, however, from each kind of ramification, eillicr of trees or 
rivers, having a name, we have in English, as applied to the former, 
but the two divisions of trunk and branch, and for the latter also 
two, tliose of river and brook*. 

The French have three distinct terms, but they arc loo vaguely 
defined to be of much use. 'J'hus with them the Fleiive is defined 
une grande riviere, qui se rend soux le meme nom de sa tource a 
la mer ; the Riviere, uwe eav qui coute dans un lit msez profond 
jiour porter bateau, et qui sejetle dans un JJeuve; the Rutsseau is 
un petit couranl d'eau. 

A very liUe obsenalion will suffice to show the inadequacy of 
these definitions. Almost all the streams which, taking their rise 



• We have rivulel lad ilr/am'el, hut Ihey are lynonymoin with /too*, being but 
dinuDutivn, the runner of the general term river, and the Inttet of tlw Ilill moca 
gtiieiicapiwU«tion><ream, appliuible ililu to all luoiuDg waten. 



I 
I 




r T4 Hints on Geoijraphtad 

on the western slope of ihe Andes, fall directly into the Pacific, 
have ihe same name from their sonrce to tlie sea, as well as, or 
even more generally than, the great streams wliich, flowing from 
the opposite side of the same mountains, discharge themselves into 
the Atlantic. To apply therefore the same definition and the sune 
name to objects so different, seems as absurd as it would be to 
Call a mountain a mole-hill. I know it may be urged that I have 
only taken a part of the definition which says une grande riviirt, 
&c. ; but what is the size, 1 would ask, which establishes the dis- 
tinction between fletive and riviere ? and if dimensions are to 
decide the question, what is to be regarded — the length of course, 
the breadth, the depth, or nil of these together, or the quantity of 
water furnished ? 

Nor is the term riviere more satisfactorily settled. It is > 
stream flowing in a channel or bed (lit), sufficiently large and 
deep to admit of boat navigation. But what will do for one 
species of boat will not do for another, and as the kind of boat it 
not mentioned, nothing is defined. Moreover, the rivih-e empties 
itself into the fievtve : what, then, are those streams which, being 
large, ay, and very large, and navigable for the largest boats, flow, 
not into a fleuve but into another riviere — as for instance, the 
Wabash, which falls into llie Ohio, itself a riviere and not t 
fieuve, according to the definition, as il does not fall directly into 
the sea, but tntoajfrace, the Mississippi ? The Wabash cannot be 
called a ruis^eau, it is to all intents and purposes a riviere, but ■ 
riviere must fall into a ^euue ; what then becomes of the definitiont 

The line of distinction between riviere and ruuseau is not 
better defined ; for a small riviere is often a large ruisseau, and 
vice versa. The French, then, with their three orders of streaini, 
are just as much confused as ourselves with our rivers and brookt. 

t'he present arrangement therefore is evidently insnflicient, and 
the establishing of a new one is by no means an easy task, as we 
shall soon sec. 

The first step towards the formation of a nomenclature ia a 
classification of the objects to be named, after which such names 
must be assigned to these several objects as shall best specify them. 
With regard to streams, then, two things mivy be considered ; — 
Ist. their arrangement as independent hydrographical systems, 
each being regarded as a distinct individual belonging to, and 
enclosed within, a general basin, unconnected (unless by accident, 
design, or some rare exception) with any other basin ; and 2ud, 
the arrangement of the several parts of which a system is com- 
posed. 

With regard to the first of these objects it may be observed 
that, with the exception of such streams as empty themselves into 
lakes and swamps having no apparent issue, or of auch as lose 



1^^^^ Arrangement and Nomenclaiure. 75 

themselves in subterraneous passages so as to be no further traced 
by any subsequent exit, all the walers which flow on the surface 
of the earth disembogue themselves into the sea : some simply 
and directly, others by means of channels not their own, with 
which they communicate mediately or immediately. 

Now such is the irregularity of the earth's surface, that a 
stream communicating singly and directly with the sea, can in 
general have but a very limited course ; for if the course be long; 
it is sore to be met by other coursies; and if very long, these 
courses which it meets will, in tlieir turn, be long and be met by 
others, and eo on to four, five, and perhaps in some cases to six 
successively, — all the streams so connected forming collectively 
a system. 

The question now is, shall we range all the individual systems 
into one general order, whatever may be their length or the num. 
ber of their ramifications, and consequently assign to them but one 
generic name, in which case they wou Id be distinguished from each 
other only by the proper name of Uie principal -9 1 re am of each ? 
or shall we arrange them into a number of classes according as 
they are composed of one, two, three, 8tc. orders of ramifications ^ 
for if we would class the systems at all, I see but this alternative. 
By the first of these methods each individual system would indeed 
be indicated, but nothing of its nature would be specified ; by the 
second we should be a little better informed, though by no means 
adequately. Previous, however, to explaining the difficulties of this 
latter arrangement, I will endeavour to show the still greater diffi- 
culty of founding a classification of rivers on any other con- 
sidemtioD than that of the several orders of ramification they 
exhibit. 

Were we to attempt a classification founded upon the length of 
the principal recipients of each system, we should soon find that, 
from the gigantic Mississippi, whoae course is, I believe, about 
three thousand seven hundred miles, down to the Thames, whose 
length is about two hundred and fifty, and from this down to the 
shortest, although the extremes are widely different, the inter- 
mediate terms descend in so gradual a ratio as to preclude the 
possibility of any thing like a natural divi.tion. 

If we should seek a principle of classification in the medium 
breadth and depth of the main streams of the several systems, or 
their width at the mouth, or the number of afBuent streanis, or 
even (he superficial extent of the basins of each system, or the 
quantity of water they furnish, we should in like manner find 
that not only under each of these arrangements the rivers would 
be difllerently placed, but the progression in each list would still be 
so gradual as lo baffle all attempts at a distribution into orders or 
classes founded on such data. Nay, what is still more, if the 



I Shall 

\ l_ 



76 Hints on Geographical 

severai partial lists so formed were to be concocted into one, by 
the addition into one of all the smatler numbers together and suc- 
cessively of the larger, still the same kind of regular gradation 
would appear, presenting no defined limits for a c I assiti cation. 

Let us therefore now retnm to the idea of a classitication 
founded on tlic orders of ramificaHon. This method appears to 
me the least objectionable, though it ia by no means exempt from 
cousiderable defects. 

By ramijicalion, figuratively speaking, I understand generally the 
confluence of the streams, the one being regarded as recipient of 
the other; and by order of ramification, 1 refer to the order of the 
recipient, as being primary, secondary, 8cc., reckoned from the sea. 
Thus I say, a river falling directly into the sea is the primary 
recipient of the system to which it belongs, and all rivers falling 
immediately into this recipient form ramifications of the first 
order, whatever may be their number. 

Thus, in plate 1, containing figures of the same hydrographic 
system differently arranged, and wherein each distinct stream is 
indicated by a different colour, fig, 1 represents a system having 
but one order of ramifications ; a a red, being the primary stream, 
into which all the rivers, aa blue, fall immediately. In fig. S, 
AA blue, being the primary stream, receives the red, which m its 
turn receives the yellow: here then are two orders of rami tic a- 
tions ; and so on, as shown by the figures 3, 4, and 5, the last of 
which has five orders of ramifications. 

Now an inspection of the most detailed maps will show not 
only that the largest rivers, generally speaking, are those which 
have the most orders of ramification, but that the very largest 
have not more than five orders. The number of each order may 
be very great, and thus a system with but two orders of rami- 
fication may be very extensive, and stretch, with a tree-like appear- 
ance, over a vast extent of country ; and this, 1 grant, b a 
great objection to the method proposed. Yet were it to be 
adopted notwithstanding this defect, then all hydrographic systems 
comprising five orders and upwards would form the first class ; 
those of four orders, the second ; those of three, the third ; and 
so on. 

But a greater disadvantage still than the one already mentioned 
might be apprehended from an inspection of the plate; viz., that 
the same identical system may be arranged as one of the first, 
second, &c. class, according as we determine it to be composed 
of different orders of streams. Thus, if the system here repre- 
sented be supposed newly discovered, and neither as a whole nor 
as regards any of its parts to have received any name, it may be 
asked, — what is now to guide us in our choice of an arrangement ? 
Shall we say, as in fig. 1, A A red is a great trunk or river of the 




Arrangement and Nomenclature. 77 

first order, receiving 6ve other streams of the second order ; or 
nhall we determine, as in tig. 5, aa blue is a river of the first order, 
receiving one of the second order, which in its (urn receives one 
of the third order, into which falls one of the fourth, and so on ; 
or &hall we adopt aii^ of the intermediate arrangements? If we 
deterTnine that the longest course shall decide the question, which 
ii to be the trunk? — it may be disputed ; hK red, fiy. 1, being 
of the same length as a A blue, fig. S, or Ad blue aud red,fiij. 5, 
[f we take the slruightness uf direction, the line xy of general di- 
rection is aa straight, for aa red,fiij. 1, as for aa blue,fiy. 2. If 
we lake ibe mass of water, it is evident that the stream below the 
confluence of any two streams is composed of those two ; so that 
we see no reason why it should bear the name of the one any more 
than the other, particularly if the two of which it is formed furnish 
masses of water nearly equal, as is frequently the case. Neither 
the breadth uor depth can be well chosen to decide the point, aa 
they are so variable in different parts of the same stream. 

These difficidties would certainly be almost insurmountable if 
we had jet to decide on affluents and recipients ; fortunately, most 
rivers are not only named, but m moat caaes it is already deter- 
mined which are the recipients and affluents of each other. This 
determination, though extremely arbitrary, cannot now be changed, 
nor would it be advisable to change it ; for in an artificial classi- 
lication (the only one possible) it may be regarded aa so much 
done, and by its means the class of any river, as depending upon 
the difTerent orders of ramifications, may be settled. 

For such rivers, however, as are not yet determined — and there 
are many in South America, where the greatest confusion reigns 
on this subject — it is advisable to follow some rule us a motive of 
determining which of two rivers shall be regarded as the recipient 
of the other. 

From what has been already said, it will be evident that the 
arrangement and classification of rivers in general is by no means 
an easy task, nor is it less difiicuU to determine on the relative 
rank of the different parts of any individual system. It follows, 
of course, that if these objects cannot be classed, they cannot be 
specifically named. And yet 1 think it essential to clearness that 
the same word river be not applied alike to such immense water- 
courses as the Mississippi, the Marafion, &c., and the Thames or 
the Humbcr ; and also that affluents be distinguished from their 
recipients by some specific appellative. 

It will probably have been observed that I have constantly 
made itse of the word affiuent where in general the word confluent 
is employed. 1 have done so designedly, being desirous of the in- 
troduction of the word nffiuent into the language as a substantive. 

The term confluent is generally used as applicable to a stream 



i cular 



T8 HinU on Geographieal 

wliich empties itself into another. This i» ^uite incorrect, and 1 
would recommend the adoption of affiuent instead. This word, 
an adjective with us, has become a substantive in French, and is 
univerbatly used to denote a tributary stream. Confiuere means 
lo flow with, and cannot therefore with propriety be applied to a 
■tream before its junction with another. Ajjiuere means to How 
towards, and is therefore, in my opinion, a much better word as 
applied to a tributary stream. I would tiiake a still further dis- 
tinction, calling generally by the name of tribatary any stream 
which directly or indirectly contributes its waters to the main 
trunk ; reserving the term affluent for such only as flow iaime- 
distcly into another river mentioned. Thus I regard both tlie 
Wabash and tlie Ohio as tributaries of the Mississippi, but the 
Wabash is »ol un affluent of the Mississippi. The Ohio is an 
sffluent of the Mississippi, and the Wabash an affluent of the 
Ohio. 1 do not mean, however, to banish altogether the word 
confluitil, but I would contine its application to a stream formed 
of two others, neither of whose names it bears. Thus the Thames 
ia a confluent of the Thame and Isis ; the Kerah, or Guna, a con- 
llueut of till; Beyah and Sutlej, &.c. 

Wc fretjuently talk of a stream as being tlie arm of a river. 1 
would strongly recommend, if we mutt use metaphorical language, 
the choosing, once for all, the most appropriate metaphor, and 
then abiding by the same. I shall have occasion hereafter to allude 
more particularly to this topic ; at present I would say, that a 
tree bearing, of all things, the greatest similitude to a river, when 
WC coiisiilt^r this on a map, with all its tributary streams, we should 
use only such terms as have relation to this similitude. Thus, 
1 would talk of the In-anckes of a river, not of its arms. We 
sometimes also say the Iteatl of a river ; and though we say, a 
body of water, 1 have not yet heard of its leys ; yet, if this lan- 
guage were adopted, the deltoid brancket should be called the 
kgs. 

I know that a tree is in one respect the very reverse of a river. 
In the former the fluid flows from the bottom towards the top, or, 
more strictly speaking, both up and down ; whereas, in a river, it 
is the very reverse, if we regard the mouth as the lower extremity. 
This objection might, however, be obviated by regarding the 
sources and little fillets of water, which give rise to rivers, as the 
roots of this aquatic tree. Indeed, this way of considering the 
subject has many advantages. In the first place, the directioa of 
the current is more strictly analogous ; and in the nest, we are in 
the habit of considering our backs as turned to the source when 
talk of right or left. Nor are there wanting vegetables, parti- 
cularly among the climbers, in which the thickness increases si 
the distance from the roots is greater. 



ArrangeTnent and Nomenclature. 

All this may be regarded as puerile, but 1 must persist in my 
Qpiiiion, tliat precision and appositeness in nomenclature are of 
iQore importance tlian is generally allowed. There will ever 
lemain a contradiction of ideas in the employment of certain ex- 
pmsioos- Thus we say to ascend the stream, which, in going 
towards its source, is proceeding towards the roots, while in a tree 
it is the reverse. Indeed, 1 hardly see any remedy for aJl this, 
unless by the framing of an entirely new nomenclature, which 
would not only be difiicult in itself, but difficultly adopted. All 
that can be done is to reject what is bad, supplying its place, 
when we may, by terms more tit and likely to be accepted ; and 
to find new names for those objects only which have as yet re- 
ceived none sufficiently specific. Something, 1 thiuk, might be 
done, in regaixi to the branches of rivers and the islands they 
tomedmes form, so aj to convey more correct ideas of them than 
ve can possibly have at present. 

Of river islands 1 would establish two divisions, which I would 
term branch-ialands and channel-islands. By tlie first I under* 
stand such as are formed by the anastomosing of the branches of 
a river. Most rivers present some of this kind in the lower part 
of their course, or where they flow through low and marshy ground. 
All ilellas present a greater or less number of these, which, as 
a further specili cation, I would denominate deltoid islands (see 
fig. 2, pi. 3). 

Thus, such branches of a river as after separation re-unite, 1 
would term anastomosing-branckes ; or, if a word might be 
coined, ana-branches, and the islands they form, branch-islands. 
Thus, if we should say, " the river in this part of its course divides 
into several ana-6ra)ic/ies," we should immediately understand the 
subsequent re-union of the branches to the main trunk, aud be in- 
formed thereby of the existence of branch -islands and of a low 
and, in most cases, marshy soil. If we said, " the river in such a 
part formed a number of branch-islands," the same kind of know- 
ledge would be imparted; that is, we should thereby understand 
tbe liver to throw off brandies which subsequently re-unite, as is 
generally the casein low ground. 

The branches which 1 term deUoid-branches are evidently of 
two kinds. The outer branches I would term deltoid-branches — 
tJiey are those which enclose the whole delta. From tliese there 
frequently branch off others, without anastomosing, forming 
merely smaller deltas within the larger one : such 1 would call 
dtllaidat-branches ; and when there is anastomosis, I would call 
them anadel-ltranclies, beiiig an abbreviation of anaslomosing- 
detloidai-branches, I cannot but think, that names founded 
on this principle would greatly contribute to clearness in de- 
■cription. 



80 BmlttmGeograpUeal 

By duaaui-idandt I undeiMaod those not fanned by any 
branching off of ihe nrer, but such as exist in its channel. Sudi 
Ulandi are Mmetimes primitive ; that is, ihey are composed of the 
tame soil as that of the opposite banks, of «bich they are a con- 
tinuation, or of a soil still more compact; and sometimes they 
are of secondary-, or, more properly perhaps, of posterior forma- 
tion, and composed of such sand or detritus as the river has 
brought down and deposited. In order, therefore, to distinguish 
them, I would call tite first bed-ulaadM, and the others boTik- 
iMlandt, if generally above the surface ; reserving the name of 
banks for such as are generally covered or liable to shift, which 
those habitually above the water are not. 

Ttiui, if, in describing a river, we should say, " its navigation 
is obstructed by a number of bed-itlands," we immediately perceire 
more or less difficulty in rendering it navigable. If we speak of 
obstruction from banlc-ulands, wc may infer a greater possibility 
of removing the obstructions. At present, the term island having 
no definite idea, leaves our conceptions vague, so that we cannot 
Jiave a perfect knowledge in any particular case but by means of 
much tiresome circumlocution. 

Such a system of denomination furnishes us moreover with a 
variety of accessary knowledge, frequently of considerable interest. 
Thus, for instance, if we know the nature of the soil through 
which a river flows, auU are told that it has many bed or bank' 
ufandt, we have immediately some idea of the degree of rapidity of 
the current; for if the bed-islands are of the same nature with the 
soil, and this be sandy, gravelly, or of loose earth, it is clear the 
river must have, and must for a long time have had, but very little 
velocity. Bank-Ulands will, in almost all cases, be indicative of 
a powerless current. If, having spoken of great rapidity and 
strength of current, we And the river to be, notwithstanding this. 
full of bed-islands, v,'e immediately infer their compact nature; 
and if, in such cases, which however is unlikely, there should be 
bank-islands, they cun only be formed of large stones, and are an 
indication of a diminished velocity of llic stream, since it once 
brought down what it has no longer power to move. 

'I'lie words be/l and channel are frequently employed as synony- 
mous terms when applied to rivers. There is, however, a diller- 
ence, which will be rendered sensible by a little attention. By 
the channel I understand generally the course, and more parti- 
cularly the deepest part of the course, of a stream ; that which by 
the French is termed chenal, and by the Germans thalweg, or 
lalweg, as the Trench write it. In the general sense, we say the 
channel is wide, long, meandering, straight, &,c. ; in a particular 
sense, we say it is deep, obstructed, and so forth. 

The word bed would in these cases be improper. By this latter 



Arrangement and Nomenda/ure. 81 

term I understand, as applied to a stretim, that part of the clian- 
uel over which ihe water generally flowd, and that part of the basin 
of a sea or lake uri wUicli the water lepo^es. The bed of a river 
■9 of mud, sand, Ulc. ; even or uneven, anil so furlh. When we 
say lire bed h deep or shallow, we speak generally of the whole 
brndlh of the channel ; but if we say the channel is deep, we 
refer to the mid-cnrrent, or that part immediately below what the 
French call the fil-de-V eau. A river does not always change the 
nature of its bLtl on changing its channel, and the bed is very dif- 
ferent in diti'erent parts of the same channel ; the terms, therefore, 
ate not synonytnons, and precision reijuires that in the use of 
them a dne attention be paid to their respective meanings. Nay, 
further still, I shonld like to see tlie general and particular course 
of a stream precisely indicated by the settled signification of 
the terms straight, aerpenlinc, meandering, toinding, and some 
compounds of tliese. Thus a river may be straight in its general 
direction, but serpentine In detail ; and thus, were I to speak of 
the direction of the Bennejo or Vermejo (Kio Grande), as laid 
down by Dercalzi*, I would call it ttratglit-serpentine. I would 
say the same of the Magdalena. The Nile Is meandro-aerpenl'tne ; 
the Oronoco winding. Most rivers are simply meandering, if 
toasidered generally, and partake in diti'erent parts of some one 
or more of the dillerent characters mentioned, and which might be 
ipecilied in speaking of those parts. The fugitive and irregular 
forms of clouds have been classed, and the classilicatiun adopted : 
*hy not do as much for the general and particular course of rivers 1 
\\'e talk also very vaguely of the banks, the borders, the margin, 
and the brink of a river. For picturesque descriptions it may be 
an advantage to have many words wliose meaning is nearly the 
»ame. Verbal tautology is thereby avoided, to the benefit of 
«yle ; but in a scientitic point of view it is otherwise : here, if 
each of tlie&e terms be retained, its precise signification should be 
established. At present, the term bank means both the imme- 
'liate edge, or border of the river, and the land for a certain unde- 
fined though not considerable distance on either side. Thus we 
ipealc of " steep and shallow banks," and " hanks adorned with 
villas." The French have ditferent terms, such as rivage, rive, 
bord, berge : — with them rieage is more exclusively applied to 
ihe sea, ripe particularly associated with the wari fleuve, and bord 
to the word noiere. Thus tlicy say, " Les rivages de ta mer, les 
rivet d'un fleuee, el lex bords d'vne riviere. Bord is, however, 
sometimes applied to riviere ; and if rive and rivage are not asso- 
ciated M'ith riviere, it is probubly to avoid an inharmonious re- 
petition of sounds so similar. In point of fact, however, bord and 
rive imply the same thing, and have precisely the same general 

• Se« BiUlcliD dc U SocMt ile Geos. ila Puis, Ko. 119, Mar. 1ti33. 



8£ Hints on Geographical 

and particular meaning as our word bank, Berge (a German 
word) has^ on the contrary, a different signification ; it means 
those heights now at some distance (greater or less) from the 
river, but which seem to have been at one time its immediate 
banks. The Ohio is a remarkable instance of a river having two 
or three ranges of berges, rising above each other, at ditTerent dis- 
tances ; the last being in some parts visible at the foot of the most 
distant hills. We have not, I believe, any term particularly indica- 
tive of such banks, and when we would designate them must employ 
the term bank or hordeVf with some explicative addition. Would 
it not, therefore, be advisable to adopt the word berg in the sin- 
gular and bergs in the plural (to avoid the harsh sound of berges^ 
pronounced as two syllables) ; to confine the term banks (us 
applied to the lateral limit or edge of a stream) to that part of the 
soil immediately washed by the stream ; to restrict the word border 
to the nature of the vegetation at the water's edge, or to artificial 
works, as bordered with sedge, with forest trees, with quays of 
granite, &c. ; to apply the term brink to the water's edge ; and 
margin to the space between the brink and the bergs. I would 
further designate the margin as sloping ( the French use the words 
en talus in this case) ; or terplain (from terre'plein)^ used adjectively 
or substantively, as occasion might be, if the space were horizontal. 

But I will no longer dwell on the subject of rivers; it is per* 
haps one of the most difficult to class, and as to the names which 
are, or may be, given to whatever is connected with them, I have 
already said peihaps too much in explanation of my idea. I shall 
now revert to the necessity of adhering to one particular metaphor 
or comparison, when any such is requisite; and the more forcibly 
to point out this necessity, I will instance the Case of mountains. 

Tliat the generality of mankind, limited in their conceptions, 
and considering all objects with reference to themselves, should 
be seized with awe at the sight of mountains many hundred times 
higher than the loftiest of their edifices, and that their expressions 
should partake of that confusion of ideas incident to exaggeration 
and ignorance, is no way to be wondered at; but that the learned, 
accustomed to study the universe with enlarged views, should 
make use of terms and comparisons such as are only befitting the 
least informed, appears to me a degradation of .science and a 
mental aberration. 

Doubtless, the sight of lofty mountains raising their summits 
above the clouds is well calculated, by comparison, to sink the 
stature of man into insignificance ; but with relation to the globe 
of which they are a part, so far from being, as they have been 
termed, the frame- woik, the skeleton, the ossature of the earth, 
which binds, strengthens, and sustains it — so far from this, I say, they 
are (if a parallel must absolutely be employed) but slight irregu- 
laritiesi httle pustules on the epidermis of that huge body the world. 



Arrangement and Nomenctaiure. 83 

It ia tiuc that meiaphor in general serves to raise the sl;1e; 
my more, where tlie comparisons are just imd welt sustaiiieil, the; 
are admiiubly adapted lo rapidity of conception, and are tlierefore 
freqiteiilly employed ~with advantage even in scientilic writings. 
But what are ue to tliink q( a metaphor, or rather of a confused 
jumble of metaphoit, which picturi^s to us the nioimtttins of the 
earth as " Cknini springing from a pfateiiu, as fiom a mother- 
mountain, and then reuniting by means of branches and rnmifica- 
titnu to tuccunal massti ; whence, as from a central point, or as 
fiom a new trunk, spring olT a nuucber of other arma nf the tke- 
lettin and other branches, pushing their roofs into liiurope, of 
which thej form the nuctaus ; which nuilewt, in its turn, throws 
out fresh twig», which form the vpinal-bone of Italy, &c. I " Yet 
such is the literal mid exact translation of a passage in a l-'rench 
work on physical geography, by a gentleman of title and consi- 
derable celebrity (atilt living, I believe). Nor need we look lung 
before we find similar examples, though perhaps not quite so 
overcharged, in the works of out own countrymen. 

Every one certainly is free to choose the comparisons whicb 
appear to him the best fitted for his purpose ; but when he has 
chosen, I would say, let him stick to his tree like an ivy branch. 
To be serious, let hiin choose a just comparison and abide by it. 

Xfaeae comparisons, however, would be less necessary if the 
language of the science were fixed. In what regards the cbssiti- 
calion of mountains, as to bulk, direction, disposition, continuity, 
fofiu, height, &c., it is pnrticularly indefinite: plateau, mountain, 
mount, hili, hillock, highland, chain, group, cluster, mass, range, 
ridge, basin, valley, vale, defile, pass, passage, ravine, gully, slope, 
brow, face, pinnacle, needle, sunmiil, point, cone, &c. &c., are 
all words having no definite or precise meaning. 

Mountains have their absolute and particular heights — the 
former measured from the level of the sea. the latter from the base 
or bottom of the mountain itself. Jiul what, I would nsk, deter- 
mines the limit of this base ?— and when the plains, on difi'erent 
sides of the mountain, are ihtmselves at different heights, os is 
geoerally the case, is not the particular height difl'erent, as taken 
from di^'crent parts ? 

As for the specification of particular mountains or ridges, I 
cannot too highly approve of the method adopted by M. Louis 
Urugiere, in his Orogrnphie de V Europe. I had myself hit upon 
the tame expedient, about tin years since, "iih a slight nioditi- 
calion, however, as 1 find by my notes. My idea was to denomi- 
nate tile principal chains by the double name of the basins they 
divide, and the secondary chains by the name of the streams flow- 
ing on their left ; and 1 still think'this method in some respecU 
preferable. It is certainly shorter, and would moreover distill' 
guiah the primary from the secoudary chains. 



i 



84 Hints on Geographical 

If from rivers and inoiiiitBiiis, baains and vallejs, we direct our 
attention to otiier objects, we shall soon see liow completely iii- 
sufGcient is our present arrangement and nomeiicbture of every 
object of the science. Bay, gulf, roadBtead, liaven, port, liarbsiir ; 
promontory, headland, bliilf, cape ; peiiiiisiiln, strait, shore, coast, 
beach, surge, wave, billow, swell ; backwater, cotiiiler current, 
eddy, vortex, whirlpool, breakers; fountain, spring, source; 
stratum, layer, bed; cavern, cave, grotto, den; blocks, boulders, 
shingle; tloat-ice, sheet-ice, t)ake-ice, icebergs, land-ice, sea-ice; 
forests, woods, wilds, wilderness, desert, steppe; and hundreds of 
other terms, absolutely call for precise definition. What one tra- 
veller calls a moiaf air, another will call dry ; water regarded as 
freah, or at most a litfte brackiak, by one, is accounted iolt by 
another; winds are but relatively strong or weak, till the terms 
are defined, What is a fog, a haze, a thick atmosphere? — ihe 
transparency of the air is relative till its measure be determined, 
and Hint in a manner not to depend on the greater or less perfec- 
tion of the observer's sight. What is a warm and what a cold 
air? &c. &c. 

But [ wilt no longer trespass on the patience of the Society : a 
word on maps, and 1 have done. 

The French have set ns an example on the subject of maps 
and plans, which I think we cannot do bettor than follow, after re- 
ducing their measures to our own, if it were found impracticable 
to adopt in this matter their decimal system. Twelve diHerent 
scales are more than suflicient for every possible purpose of geo- 
graphy and topography ; and the scales the French have adopted 
are certainly excellent. They have even gone farther, having de- 
termined, with the greatest precision, the lengili, thickness, and 
distance asunder of the lines by which elevations are represented 
in topographical maps, according to their respective scales. I'he 
heights of the letters and kind of writing is also lixed according to 
the nature of the object named and the scale of the plan. Nothing 
certainly can have been more carefully done; and the rules ob- 
served, in regard to maps and plans, at the Dept'it de la Guhrre, 
cannot, in my humble opinion, be loo highly extolled, too strongly 
recommended, or too universally promulgated by the Society. 

Every geographical map, however small a portion of the world 
be represented by it, should bear llie precise indication of the 
scale, and state from what meridian the degrees of longitude are 
reckoned. The want of attention to this latter object, but too 
common in many maps, is frequently most inconvenient Another 
object, which 1 cannot but think very desimble, if it could be 
accomplished, would be the printing of streams of every kind in 
lines of a bright blue, instead of black; qs also to cover nil lakes 
with a Hat tint of the same colour; and to etch all marshes and 
swamps in blue horizontal lines, as they are now done in black ; 



AerangemenI and Nomenclulure. 85 

liie sea siiould also be wholly covered with a tint of pale blue, or 
have a brouil blue shading round the coast. 

It has been proposed to turn to u useful purpose the double 
hues of the lower course of rivers by making those double lines 
cooimence where the river begins to be navigable. This might 
certainly be done in some cases, but as a general principle it is 
impossible, the scale of uinny maps not admitting of double lines 
at all. I would therefore propose, instead of this, a zigzag bar 
across the Htreani at the points where it begins lo be naviguble 
for different kinds of embarkation; indicated by n letter and 



number thus 'v^b, for small boats or canoes ; M^ J for barges or 

large boats drawing two feet of water (changing the number 

« may be required ); "jh^ sailing vessels drawing six feet of 

trater, &c. These marks should he placed In all maps of a 
certain sc&Ie, ss also another for the highest point at which the tide 
ij felt ; such, for instance, as a double arrow in this form fj^, 

placed in the middle or on one side of the stream. ! wonid also 
have the same tide-mark at the mouths of rivers and along the 
coast with a double number thus ^-^j , indicating the highest 
and ordinary tides. Another improvement in our maps which I 
would likewise recommend, is to denote, by means of arrows and 
other marks at the confluence and bifurcations of rivers, which 
aie the affluents and which are the recipients. As it is, we have 
frequently much difficulty in tracing rivers to their source, or from 
their source to their recipients. 

Let any one, for instance, take a map of India, and determine, 
from inspection, whether it is the Hydaspes, the Ascesines, or the 
Hydraotes which falls into the Indus; and which of these three 
rivers is the recipient lo the other two. Let him, in like manner, 
determine \thether, after the junction of the Iljphasis and the 
Hesudrus, the river continues to hear the name of one of these, 
or lakes another quite different from either; — whether, after the 
bifurcation of what I would call the ana-branches, one or both 
of them continue to bear the name of the stream thus di- 
vided, or any other ; and finally, after the junction, what 
name the stream receives? 'ihe mere .inspection of the map 
will hardly answer these questions. The trifling addition of 
a few arrows and marks will, however, make all clear. Thus I 
would place an arrow along the recipient stream opposite 
its tributary, reaching both above and below the confluence. For 



I 
I 



86 Hints on Geographical 

instance, in tracing up the river which flows by Moultan, the 
arrow shows me whence it comes. I continue to follow it up and 
I come to another confluence, where another arrow directs me on 
till i come to the name, and thus I iind it to be the Chenab or 
Ascesines that flows past Moultan, and empties itself into the 
Indus. But for these arrows, I might suppose the Chenab to be 
an aflDuent of the Ravee, and that it was this latter river which 
flowed past Moultan on its way to the Indus.'*' 

When two confluent rivers lose their names, so that neither is 
recipient to the other, I would place two arrows, as where the 
Begah and Sutlej unite to form the Kerah or Guna, and when, 
after the bifurcation of this latter, the two ana^branchei (one of 
which re-assumes the name of Begah) re-unite to form one which 
again takes the name of Sutlej. A bar across both banks will 
here denote the loss of name. If, after a bifurcation, one of the 
branches retain the name of the divided stream, I would place an 
arrow along the stream which retains its name, and cut oflf by a 
bar the other branch. When both branches retain the name^ 1 
would place an arrow in the angle. It were needless to place the 
arrow where one of the streams being indicated by a double line, 
lind the other by a single one, sufliciently denotes which is the 
recipient. 

1 hese arrows and marks need not be large, but should be dis^ 
tinct ; they would not surcharge a map so much as inserting the 
name of a river in several parts of its course, as is often done, and 
as is not always sufficient ; for although the name be written both 
on the upper and lower part of a river, the intermediate space may 
receive other names. 

But of all things connected with maps, nothing is of greater 
importance than the orthography of the names of places and 
objects ; and unless the principle on which we are to proceed 
ill this matter be deflniteiy arranged, we cannot possibly under- 
stand each other. Not only, therefore, should a pnnciple be 
laid down for the future, but it is much to be desired that some 
one would undertake a book of synonymes, in which, under the 
most advantageous arrangement, would be found all the names, 
ancient and modern, by which any place or geographical object 
may be known. Nothing, certainly, can be of greater advantage 
to our further progress in any science than the knowledge of what 
is already done, and too much encouragement, I think, cannot be 
given to Mr. Babbage's plan of a work on the • Constantt of 
Nature and Art A great variety of geographical data exist, and 
if they were collected would be of nicaiculable benefit to our 
future researches, by preventing the loss of much valuable time in 

again doing, from ignorance, what has already been performed. 

■ - — 11.11. ■ . I I 111 III »i^^— ^ 

* I h«re allude to theM rivers aa laid down by ReauelL 




Arrang^mmf and Nomenclature. 87 

But ahliough much is done, il ia in reality nothing compared 
with what yet remains to be accom|>li!>heil. Wlien «e reflect on 
ibe great variety of objects wliicli constitute a knowledge of (lie 
eartJt and of its atmosphere, we see a vast field as yet bnt little ex- 
plored. How much IS yet to be known on the subject of winds, 
■tniospberic pressure, temperature of the air in different regions, 
■t ditfereiit hifights, and under different ci re nni stances of season, 
&c. ; — hygrometry, magnetism, electricity, local anomalies, changes 
of climate. Sic. ! What a number of heights yet to be ascertained, 
and depths to be sounded; — tides and currents to determine, 
with encroach nien Is of the sea upon the land, and of the land 
upon the sea ! How little do we kiiow of the lowering of moun- 
tains, and elevation of plains ; of the temperature of the water at 
different depths, and of the earth at different depths in dilferent 
loils ! What experiments yet to make on the reverberation of lieat 
fiom different soils and under particular circumstances of aspect, 
vegetation, &c. ! How ignorant are we still of almost everything 
connected with aqueous meleifrs, clouds, hail. Sic. ! What know we 



of the Aurora Borealis ? of the formation of aerolites ? In 



opo- 



graphy alone, what regions yet unexplored by, and unknown to, 
the inquiring eye of civilized Europe! What countless trea- 
sures may yet be reaped by the zoologist, the botanist, and the 
mineralogist in the vast continents of Africa, of South Ame- 
rica, and central Asia ! Yes, we know much, and yet we know 
but little. 

But 1 must now conclude u paper already, I fear, much too 
long. Every one who lias devoted his time to geographical studies 
must have fell over and over again the want of a proper, explicit, 
and comprehensive arrangement and nomenclature of the several 
objects of the science. Every other science has its language, and 
why should not geography t* Nu epoch, certainly, was ever so 
well calculated for its determination as the present. It is but as 
yesterday that geographical societies have been formed. Their 
object ia the advancement of science, and I cannot but regard 
cUssiHcatiun and nomenclature as a most efficacious means ; and 
when travelleis shall be furnished widi a systematic arrangement, 
and invited by (he Society (o adhere to its nomenclature, there is 
no doubt but that they will willingly conform ; and their voyages 
and travels, universally read, would, as 1 have already observed, 
soon render general any newly-adopted terms. 

To resume, then : 1 would beg leave to propose for the consi- 
deration of the Society the following objects, viz :— 

1. The methodical arrangement and classification of the several 
objects connected with geographical science. 

ti. The adoption and promulgation of a definite, concise, but at 
the same time compiehensive system of nomenclature, such as 



L 



88 Description of the Countries on the 

would raise geography in reality to the rank of a positive and 
exact science. 

3. The collecting of all the well-authenticated and positively 
determined facts of the science^ and their tabular arrangement in 
a concise and comprehensive form. 

4. The framing of comprehensive and detailed instructions for 
all the observations to be made in every branch of the science. 

5. The adoption of a general and improved system of maps. 

J. R. Jackson. 



V. — Papers descriptive of the Countries on the North-West Fran- 
tier of India: — The Thurr, or Desert; Joodpoor and Jay- 
sulmeer. Communicated by Lieutenant Alex. Burnes^ late 
Assistant-Quarterniaster-General of the Bombay Army ; and 
drawn up, in 1830, while surveying these Countries by Order 
of the Bombay Government. With an entirely new Map. 
Read 10th April, 1834. 

Introduction. — In the beginning of 1828 I was directed to 
proceed on duty, as an officer of the Quartermaster-Grenerars 
department, from Cutch to the station of Deesa ; and by extend- 
ing my journey on that occasion as far eastward as the mountain 
of Aboo, 1 had an opportunity of examining the 'whoIe north- 
western frontier of the Bombay presidency. 1 found that our 
knowledge of the countries in that vicinity was most limited ; nor 
did the great importance attached to this portion of our Eastern 
empire escape my notice. In July, of the same year, I therefore 
made proposals to the then Commander-in-Chief, Lieutenant- 
General Sir Thomas Bradford, to enter on an examination of 
them ; and, as the tracts through which I should have moved 
would be bounded on the west by the Indus, I ventured to sug- 

?est that, if there existed no political objections to the measure, 
might be allowed to descend tiiat river, from where it is joined 
by the waters of the Punjab at Ooch, to the sea. I stated that, 
with the permission of Government, 1 would enter into inquiries 
both of a general and geographical nature ; believing that there 
was much of interest in these countries, as concerned their geo- 
graphy and the people by whom they were inhabited. 

His Excellency the Commander-in-Chief brought the plan to 
the notice of Government in a very favourable manner, and it met 
with the warm support of the Governor, Sir John Malcolm, who 
referred it to the Supreme Government in India. Before an 
answer could be received from Bengal, the Governor was pleased 
to enter into arrangements for my carrying it into execution. 
He referred its feasibility, in a political point of view> to th^ 



Norlh-fVeal Froniier of India. 89 

Resident in Ciitch, LieutenaiU-CoIonel Pouiiiger, who, by his 
persona) kaowledge of the couiitrits westward of llie Indus, from 
hia own enlerpiiaiiig travels lliroiigli ihem, as well as from bis 
present politiciil situation near them, was well enabled to judge 
correctly of the proposal. He expressed, in the strongest lan- 
guage, his entire concurrence in the undertaking ; and, to use 
the words of his own oflicinl communication, stated, " that it 
would be a highly importaut and creditable acquisition to our 
military and geographical knowledge — that it would. In a great 
measure, if not entirely, till up ihe many unknown and vacant 
spaces in the best extant maps of India — and would clearly aud 
satisfactorily connect the tracts througli which Lieutenant Burnes 
proposed to move wilh the researches into, and siirvejs of, the more 
northern and western regions, which were obtained by the missions 
to Persia, Cabool, and Sinde, in the years 1808, 9, 10, 11, &c." 

Sir John Malcolm fully concurring with Lieut. -Col. Potlingei, 
1 was appointed an Assistant to the Political Resident in Culch, 
and directed to conduct the undertaking under his instructions. 
The ofKcial letter to the Resident set forth, that " the Governor in 
council leaves it at your discretion to employ Lieutenant Uurnes, 
iu whatever quarter he proceeds, so ns to make it appear that the 
survey is a secondary object; and this end, if attained, will vest 
him with intluence wiili the rulers through whose country he tra- 
vels ; and will tend greatly to allay that jealousy and alarm which 
might impede, if they did not arrest, ihe progress of his topogra- 
phical in<iutries, if unassocialed with any other pursuit." 

It was considered desirable by the Government, that another 
o6icer should accompany nie in the journey, and Lieutenant 
James Holland, of the Quartermaster-General's department, a 
talented and enterprising officer, was selected for that purpose. 
On the 1st of December, 1829, we started from Bhooj, the 
capital ofCutch. That no difficulties might occur at the outset, 
I was charged with letters of a political nature lo the chiefs in 
Parkur, the territory which would be lirst entered after passing 
the frontier, i had also letters to the Rajah of Joodpoor, and to 
the din'ereiU political agents under the Bengal Government, to 
remove any obstacles that might present themselves. 

White on the eve of crossing the desert from Ajrneie to Ooch, 
I received a communication " that it was considered, by the 
Govern or- General in council, inexpedient to incur the hazard of 
exciting the alarm and jealousy of the rulers of Sinde or other 
foreign stales, by the prosecution of the survey in their territories, 
or those of the chiefs over which they claim sovereignty." it only 
remained, therefore, to collect as much matter as was in our 
power, and the following papers contain an abstract of the general 
and geographical information which I thus obtained. A person! ' 
narrative, which details our various adventures in the desert, 






yo Description of the Countries on the 

atso drawn up, but it U too voluiiiinous, and perhaps not altoge- 
llier aiiiled, for the GeograpliicHl Society. It aliould, however, b« 
borne in mind, that the least iiitereiiting portion of the contem- 
plaled journey was elFecled ; and tliat, instead of returning on the 
steps of Alexander and his Greets, through countries almost un- 
known in Burupe, we followed a more beaten but still interesting 
path. 

On tue Construction op thp. Map. — Previous to enter- 
ing on a deacription of the counliies which follow, it is necessarjr 
to detail the autliority on which the geographical information rests, 
and the means which 1 have had at my disposal to construct the 
map which accompanies tliese papers. 

The extreme point eastward is the camp of Nusseerabad, in 
Ajmeer; the longitude of which is 74'*4if 12", eastward of Green- 
wich, as deduced from a mean of tive observations of the first 
•Btellite of Jupiter, for which I am indebted to Brigadier Wilson, 
of the liengal army, and commanding the lield force in Rajpoo- 
tann. The western point is the seaport of Maudivee, in Cntch, 
which is in longitude (fy° 34', east of Greenwich, as lixed by 
neveral observations; in particular, by Captain Maxfield, late of 
the liombay Marine. 

The latitudes ihiDughout have been determined by the sextant 
with the false horizon. Observations were taken daily by two 
different sextants; and, in most iustiinces, the mean of the two 
laid down as the correct parallel, after the necessary corrections 
for refraction, parallax, &.c. &,c. had been made. The extreme 
point north is Jaysnlmeer, which is in latitude iff b6' ti., or 
about half u degree lower than in the most approved maps of 
India; that of Mandivee is iO." 5\' N, The parallels of latitude 
have been laid olT im the scale of sisly-nine and a half statute 
miles to a degree ; the meridians of longitude, on thu other hand, 
are given according to their value, calculated by their distance 
from the e<]nator. 

The survey was first laid down at the scale of two miles to an 
inch, that attention might be given to the topography of the 
country; this was, however, found to be much too extended a 
scale, and even one-half of it would have covered five sheets of 
drawing-paper. The present map has therefore been reduced to 
that of eight miles to an inch* ; and the minute account of every 
stiig(i in the journal will amply supply tlie loss in topographical 
knowledge. 

It was judged piudent to avoid, as much as possible, carrying 
any inslrnmeiils or apparatus which might excite the suspicions 
of the people ; perambulators and theodolites were therefore dis- 



■ Thia ii-fviB lu LicUtBUiul Buciio'h uriginiil map, whicli i« in tlic lilmry uf Iba 
Baci«ly. Ttie ikvlcli tiure K'ven is furtbci icduced to one-iixih of iti trait, in order 
to Kcommgdate it lo the bimilu sketch of [he Indui piiblUbed in the last Tolume. 



Norlh'IVrAt Frontier of India. 

perued widi, and the valuable compass liy ^limalr.ililer siibatl- 
lut«d in lieu uf tlie laltt^r. I liu rale of 'maii:li was, wiih much 
piins, previously tleleriiiined, by a peiaitibulatur auil other means. 
In be o few yards less ihaii four miles an hour, and which wag 
eonseqiienily adopted. Mauy opportunities also occurred, by 
cross- bearings from hills at n considerable dislunce, to judge of 
the justness of this culculation, and it has been verilied both by 
ihem and the latitude. 

'I'he snnrey of the countries laid down in this map was much 
facilitated by the hills with which tliey are studded. Some of 
lliem were visible at a distance of forty-live miles, and beconia 
thus sA many points to check the different portions of llie survey, 
and which have rendered the map trigonometrical. One moil 
important point westwaid was the peak over Balmeer, in the 
desert, from which a hill, called Goeenn, on the titer Loonee, 
about forty miles eastward, was vitiible. From Goeenu there waa 
1 succession of live peaks to Chang Hill, in Ajuieer, and as the 
detail survey between these points had always a check from each, 
great correctness was thereby insured; in addition lo which, a 
miuiite road-survey was made between each stage, the protraction 
of which is detailed in the field-books, 

lieutenant Holland, who accompanied me, wherever the state 
of the country adniitled, took a separate route from myself, and 
by our joining every eight or leu days to start anew, and moving 
on similar points and in parallel lines, at a didtance of from twenty 
lo Iwenly-five miles, we were enabled lo entirely lill up ilie inter- 
mediate spaces between our routes. 

The map will be foimd to contain fournearly complete lines of 
route through the soulhern portion of Joodpoor, and which have 
finished the survey of that part of the country. Mr. Holland's 
route is distinguished from mine by the blue line, and the entire 
detours made by him amount to a distance of bIk hundred and 
twelve miles. My own survey is markeil in red. and the road 
distance is exactly one thousand four hundred and sevenly-lhree 
miles. The object, which 1 had in view at the outset, was lo 
trace the Loonee river from ils embouchure in the Itunn of Cutch, 
to ils source m the mountains of Ajmeer. This has been fully 
accomplished. Mr. Holland followed its tributary slreams, and 
on our return south, these were ihoioughly traced to their sources 
by that officer and myself, in the double loute which we pursued. 
They almost all rise in the mountains of Maywar, 1 have also 
included some of my farmer surveys in Cutch, the Uunass river 
and A boo mountain (to which 1 add some hundred angles); also the 
route acro»s lo Baltyaree in Siude, as they uonld be given without 
increasing the size of the map. Cutch is from my own survey of 
that country. 



L 



92 Description ofihe Countries on the 

It is not my desire to magnify the difficulties encountered in 
the construction of this map : 1 have had all the geographical 
information on the records of the Bombay government, but it did 
not include anything above the Loonee, and only one-half of that 
river. The country, lower down, though wonderfully correct, 
considering the data on which it rested, was found in numerous 
points most erroneous and defective : the Sookree river, for 
mstance, was made to fall into the Runn of Cutch, when it is but 
a branch of the Loonee ; and besides, its course for a considerable 
distance was given as unknown, and represented by a dotted line. 
In most parts, therefore, there was no map for a guide, and I 
believe that, of the territories immediately beyond the Loonee, 
there is really no survey extant by any European, except one line 
of route from Joodpoor to Jaysulmeer. 

1 might have extended considerably the size of thi« map by 
plotting off routes towards the Indus, which were collected with 
care, and which might have better fixed many places on that river 
between Sinde and the Punjab, but I considered it advisable to 
confine myself to what actually came under observation ; for 
although I could have followed the approved methods of Rennell 
and other geographers, in laying down routes from native in- 
formation, yet I doubt if 1 should have given a more clear 
general outline of the country than at present exists, or have 
advanced thereby the interests of geography. These papers are 
still by me, and may be of use at a future period. 

Parkur and the Desert bordering on it. — The dis- 
trict of Parkur is situated under the 24th degree of N. latitude, 
and near the 71st of £. longitude. In extent it is extremely 
limited, stretching from north to south to no greater distance 
than twenty miles, nor is it from east to west more than thirty- 
five. It owes importance^ in the surrounding country, as being 
the only cultivated spot in the Thurr, or little desert, which borders 
close on it to the north and north-west ; — on all other sides it has 
the Ilunn of Cutch for its boundary, which extends inland on 
both extremities, and leaves it peninsulated. This small tract is 
interspersed with rocky hills, nearly destitute of verdure, the 
highest of which are called Kulinjur. A belt of low land cuts the 
district into two unequal parts, separating the hills of the one from 
the other, and is under water during rain. But for these rocky 
eminences, Parkur would have long since become a part of the 
desert to the north, or Runn to the south of it. There is a con-» 
siderable portion of arable land ; and the soil, particularly under 
the hills, is favourable for agriculture, but there is not one-eighth 
cultivated, though it might produce three-fold. 

Parkur is ruled by two Rajpoot chieftainsj of the Soda tribe. 




NorOi'tTM Frontiers of India. 95 

nhicli is a braiicli of llie Piirmar, from Dhar into Malwn, who 
seltled in Parkiir, and tlio comitriM iiorlli of it, about seven or 
tight liundred years since. The chief person in the coundjis the 
Raiia of Nuggur, but the Thakoor of Veerawow has nioie hi- 
tliienre and power. The chief af the tribe is ihe Sooltmi Soda of 
Omercote, to whom a degree of allegiance and respect is paid, 
but no tribute. The Sodas are a race favoured by nature with a 
handsome exterior, and the reputed beauty of ihcir females has 
made a Soda wife it desideratum with every man of rank in the 
tieighbouriiig country, which has led to their demanding exorbilant 
sums fur their daughters. These people are chlofly occupied in 
tending herds and flocks, and doublless, the healthful employment 
of the parents, away from crowded cities, has contributed to Ihe 
slrengU) and beauty of their oH'spring. 

Tiie predominating tribe in Parkur, is the Cooley, a set of beings 
hardly removed from savages. The mercantile castes, sncli aa 
Lohanus and Banians, are also to be found, but, from the insecurity 
ut trade, they are leaving tlie country. There is a tradition in the 
dintnct that these were fonncrly very numerous. Charnms and 
Brabmlns (chiefly of the Ouditch caste) are also among the in- 
habitants, and these, with Rajpoots of the Maldee and other tribes, 
a few Belooch Mahomniedans, Myannas and some Megwars or 
outcasts, make up the populullon to about eight thousand souls. 

The present chiefs of the district are Jugajee Itana of Nuggur, 
and Poonjajee the Thakoor of Veerawow. Parkur itself is un- 
ecgiially divided between them, the nineteen soulliern villages 
belonging to the Kana, and tlie remaining ten to Poonjajee ; but 
the latter likewise possesses a tract of country beyond Parkur in 
the desert, extending to Istamcole on the north, Bakaslr on the 
east, and BalUaree on the west, which gives him a territory, at the 
lowest calculation, of five thousand stinarc miles. Nor is 
this the only source of his revenue, for he possesses the Image 
of 8 Jain or Banian god, which was stolen from the temple 
of Goree in the desert, by his ancestors, and which he never prO' 
duces without a bribe. The liana of Parkur Is an usurper, 
having with his own hand treacherously murdered his nephew, 
about lliree years since. In the accomplishment of (his horrid 
deed he had a confederate in the oilier chief, so that a friendship 
has since grown up between them likely to crush, for a time, ail 
inlerDal disorder. 

'llie possession of Parkur has been a contentious source of dif- 
ference between the surrounding governments. Its situation wonid 
point it out as an Integral portion of tlie Sinde dominions, but 
both the Kao of Cutch and the Haja of Joodpow have had garri- 
sons there, and it must always be subject to the strongest of the 
ibree. The power of Cutdi was subvtrled In the reign of Kao 



94 Description of the Countries on the 

Lacca, about the year ]7(iO, and it has been a province of Sinde 
since the elevation of the house of l^alpoor, something less than 
forty years. 

The tribute nominally rendered is one^^fifteenth of the whole 
produce, paid in kind, of which the Rana pays two-thirds and the 
other chief one. In favourable seasons this may amount to eighty 
^' kulsees'* of grain, or from one thousand to fifteen hundred 
rupees ; but the payment is most irregular, and depending entirely 
on the season. This sum is only wrested from the chiefs after 
much negotiation, and they again plunder their subjects; so that 
a master-stroke of policy in Parkur is to dismiss the Sindian body 
of horse with as little money as possible. If the chiefs refuse to 

!>ay the annual ** bhuttee,^' or grain tribute, the party who are sent 
or it help themselves to camels or flocks sufficient to make up 
the sum. If they drive away mora than will yield the required 
tax, the excess is deducted from the amount next year. The 
manner of collecting the body of horse sent to levy this tribute 
exhibits the peculiarity of government in Sinde. A Sirdar receives 
an order to proceed to Parkur : he takes with him a few honemen 
of his own, collects half a dozen more from as many of his friends on 
the road, brings with him no supplies, and, on reaching Veerawow, 
gets the merchants of the town to support him and his horse until 
the looked-for sum is realized. The grain expended is deducted 
from the quantity produced, and the remainder sold for its value in 
money, none of which ever reaches the treasury of the Ameers, 
the whole being expended in fitting out the detachment to collect 
it. These horse consist of Beeloochees, who evince but a slight 
regard for the subjects of their masters, as they plunder every- 
where, seizing even a single camel or bullock, which renders 
the Sindians exceedingly unpopular. The dominion of the 
Ameers is, however, established on a firm basis in this part of the 
country, and they have built various forts in the desert, such as 
Islanikote, Chailar, Kodee or Saa Gud, Meetee, and Tingalo, iB 
all of which they retain troops, allowing none else to enter their 
gates. 

The Parkur chiefs can assemble about five hundred horse and 
three thousand foot on occasions of danger ; but plunder is the 
chief object of these people, and a foray on their neighbours' cattle 
tallies better with their inclinations and customs than any com- 
bined operations. Some Brahmins sat in '* dhurna," that is, re* 
fusing to eat or perform the offices of nature, at Veerawow, when 
we were in Parkur, under a hope of prevailing on the chief to 
restore their stolen cattle. The country is therefore the dread of 
its neighbourhoodi which is not to wondered at from the character 
of its inhabitants. The Rajpoots are known to be brave ; the 
Myannas are men of the most determined resolution ; the Bee* 



NoTlh-H'ett Frontier of India. Q5 

looches are expert soliliers, and ilie Coolejs are a race of people 
wmelliing like UheeU, iieiiher considered as Hindoo), nor Malio- 
medans, and held in iiigli repute as warriors in tite surrounding; 
country. The whole Iruct to the north is inhabited by the same 
class of people, and it i>i only less nnlorious from their btiiig scat- 
tered over a wide extent of territory, while the petty state of 
ParLur, on account of its forage and water, contains huddled la- 
gether a crowd of miscreants, who regard all conduct lawful which 
idvauces their own interests. 

There is not a fortilication or place of defence in the dintrict, 
except the hills of Kaliujur, which are about 3J0 feet high, and 
contain within their rocky peaks a strong fortress called Sardruh, 
abundantly stipplied with water. Four paths lead up to it, and 
the whole inhabitants of the country retreat thither with their flocks, 
herds, xnd properly on the approach of danger. These hills lie 
DU the southern side of Parkur, and are about twenty miles in cir- 
cumference. All the villages in that part of the district are built 
close to iheir base. These are constructed of most com- 
bustible materials, and consist merely of small conical grass huts, 
■urrounded by a dry tlioni hedge, m that every liabltatiun in the 
country might be reduced to ashes ill an hour. Conflagration does 
not, however, appear to be a mode of warfare adopted among 
these tribej. 'I'here was at one time a brick fort of about eighty 
yards square at Veerawow, but it has beeu demolished by orders 
from Sinde, 

Parkur is open to attack froni all sides, and could be approached 
by sn sTiny with heavy guns from Uie south-east by Nurru Bate; 
and tbey also might be dragged along the Runn banks; but the 
desert would easily be rendered impassable by tilling up or con- 
cealing the wells, an usual practice with these people. The roads 
throughout Parkur are passable for carls, but beyoud it none but 
beasts of burden travel. 

Water is abundant in the district, and found about ten feet from 
iIk surface : it is muddy, but not so inferior as might be supposed 
from the vicinity of the salt Kuon and desert. There are no rivers 
or running streams in Parkur, and tank water ia less common than 
that frotu wells. There is abundance of pasture, and the soil is fa- 
vourable to culture, though light and dusty ; but, in the total absence 
of hII regular government, the country yields little. The people 
prefer passing their time in tending herds and flocks, with which 
ihey wander from one place to another as their wants can be most 
readily supplied. These temporary dwellings are called " wands," 
and here the people prepare their " ghee,'' or clarififd bnller, 
from lite milk of their cattle, which is the only article of export 
in the country, if I except die gum which exudes from the bubool 
and other shruba. 



I 
I 



96 DesrrlpHoii of the Countries on the 

The only places of note in Paikiir are Veerawow nnd Niiggur; 
the latler situated close under tlie Ealtnjur liilU, and nominally 
the capital, though Veennvow has three hundred and tifty aitd 
Nuggur only one htindicd and fifty houses. Veerawow is situated 
on a fresh-water lake, about three miles in circumference, and 
formed by the rain rushing into it from the surrounding country. 
As [he water recedes, wheal is cultivated on its hanks. Veerawow 
is in 24° .SI' 6" North latitude. Close to it are the remains of 
the city' of Pareenuggur, said to have been a place of wealth and 
opulence seven hundred years since, though its site is only now 
discoverable by some temples and the surrounding country being 
strewed with broken pieces of bricks for two miles. The temples 
have been cnnslructed of marble, and are dedicated to Pn- 
rusnath, the god of the Banians. The abundance of water about 
Veerawow would always make it the place of lirst importance in 
Parkur ; and as the commerce between the countries on the Indus 
and India must be carried on through the desert at some place, 
Pareenuggur may have been a depot ut a former period ; but nei- 
ther the extent of its ruins, nor the diminutive description of the 
temples, support the tradition of the people, that it had one 
thousand eight hundred Banians and " twice seven twenty 
(two hundred and eighty) families of blacksmiths;" nor would 
the wealth of the Shrawuck or Banian tribe have been shown in 
temples so inferior as those at Pareenuggur, none of which are 
higher nor occupy a greater square than thirty feet. Marble is 
not found in Parknr, and there is a tradition of its having been 
brought by sea to it when the litnin was naviguble ; but the diffi- 
culty would be more readily solved by having it transported from 
the vicinity of Aboo, where it may be had in abundance. Such 
undertakings are not nncommon in India, and we have a splendid 
example in the magnificent mausoleum of marble built by the re- 
nowned Auruugzebe at Ellora. The architecture of these temples 
is good, and one of the roof stones has been carved in an elegant and 
rallicr chaste pattern ; they are yet surpassed by niany other Jain 
temples. It ia probable that the town of Pareenuggur was indebted 
for its marble buildings to those merchanis or Banians who took 
np their residence in the country for purposes of commerce. 

The bills and elevations in Parkur are invariably rocky, and the 
low lands are entirely free from stone. 'Ilie formation of Kalinjur is 
generally granite, of a red colour; about one hundred feet from the 
summit, a black streak separates this from trap rocks. These atones, 
when struck, linklc like melal. The natives believe Parkur to have 
been seton fire when a curse was pronounced against the country by 
one ParusKookkee (a holy person, from whom the district is named). 
The hills of Parkur present to view a most ragged and chaotic ap-.., 
pearance, one cone as it were overtopping another. They t' 





North- fTesl Frontier of India. 

abruptly from ihe plain, parlicuturly to Uie iiortli, and present pre- 
cipitous sides, wliich are nut accessible but by foot-pattis. There 
(k>ea not appear to be any sandstone in the district, a fact ren- 
dered singular by the neiglibotiring country of Cutch having hardly 
a mountain of any other description. The Parkur people say their 
hills have been baked, and those in Cutch are "kucha," ur uncooked. 

The dbtrici of Parkur produces nothing which is not common 
to the neighbouring countries. Bajree and other coarse grain is 
reared ; but rain is extremely precarious, and a favourable season 
in every three is more than nature bestows on it. Irrigation is 
unkDOwn, chiefly from the want of the cultivating classes ; and 
many of the inhabitants support life by the wild, spontaneous pro- 
ductions of the soil, 

Among the sources of revenue in Parkur, that which is most 
productive is the possession of a Banian idol or god by the 
Chief of V'eerawow, for which the Jains entertain a very great 
degree of reverence. His name is Goreechn, and he was stolen 
from the temple of Goree in the desert by the ancestors of 
Poonjajee, and is kept constantly buried in the sand, nor 
ever produced till a devout Jam bribes the chief, for that per- 
sonage pretends that money will not always prevail on his god- 
ship to appear. Thousands of people cross to Parkur when Go- 
reechu is exhibited, and their offerings are the sole and undisputed 
property of the Thakoor of Veerawow. The greatest precautions 
are taken to prevent the removal of Goreechu, and men of wealth 
and respeclability are demanded by the chief as hostages previous 
to the exhibition. This idol is said to have been brought into 
Parkur from Puttun eight hundred years since, concealed in a 
camel-load of cotton, and charged with an order to the Pnrmars 
(as the Sodas were then called) to lake charge of him. Goreechu 
remained in his temple till within these forty years, when one of 
the chiefs, Judging it to be a favourable opportunity for aggran- 
dizing himself, seized on the idol, and fled with it into the de- 
sert, which has increased, if possible, the veneration of his vota- 
ries, and greatly enriched the possessor, who has thus become the 
greatest personage in Parkur. The temple of this god is a haud- 
some building about twelve miles from Veerawow, and pilgrimages 
are yet made to its imugeless walls by the helpless and deluded 
Banians. The image is described as a small marble statue, 
about Hvo feet high. The tutelar deity of the Sodas themselves 
is Chaluknaichee ; but they pay a gieat degree of deference to 
Goreechu. One man said to me, " Would you have us procure 
our food by his means, and not reverence him ?" which may be 
interpreted into a respect for the prejudices of those who contri- 
bute to their worldly advantage. The chiefs of Veerawow, in par- 
ticular, show a respect to his godship : they will not eveu eat or 



L^ 



98 Description of the Countries on the 

drink within the walls of their fort, as it was the place to which 
Goreechu was first removed from his temple. 

Parkur is described as having had fourteen districts or pur- 
gunnas subject to it, and to have been a flourishing principality 
in the reign of Chundun Rana, said to be a contemporary of 
l^kaphoolanee. The minstrels of the country are full of the 
praises of this person, and trace his genealogy step by step for 
upwards of twenty generations, nor do the neighbouring tribes of 
Rajpoots deny the claim of the Sodas to this antiquity. It is a 
tradition, however improbable, engraven on the memory of every 
boy, that '' Chundun Rana daily, in a reign of twenty-four years, 
distributed a crore of cories at sun-rise." The same traditions 
state, that differences arose between the Princes who succeeded 
Chundun and the Banians, who fled to Cutch and Kattywar, 
where they have since settled. There is some probability in this 
latter portion of the tale, for in present times the Baiiian3 close 
their shops and transact no business when any act of government 
displeases them. 

The Sodas took their name from one of their chiefs, after a 
bloody and unsuccessful battle with the Mahomedaos, in which 
many thousands of them are said to have perished near Kayraro, 
in the hills of Balmeer. From that time the Purwars were sub- 
divided into thirty-five tribes or *^ saks." I did not learn the pe- 
riod at which they attained such celebrity for the beauty of their 
females, but it has tended to demoralize the tribe, and the Sodas 
will now affiance their daughters to Mahomedans. 

It is curious to remark the similarity of tales in Eastern coun* 
tries. It is said of one of the chiefs of Parkur that, when oa a 
journey to Balmeer in the desert, he saw five hyenas, one of which 
was devouring a kid, while another was feeding at a distance on a 
portion of it, and the remaining three looked on. This called for 
the assistance of his minstrel, who assured Ganga (so the chief 
was named), that from die marriage he was now about to make 
would spring up five sons ; that one would be Rana or chief, the 
other rebel and seize a portion of his dominions, and the three con- 
tinue as servants. In the opinion of these people this prediction 
has been fulfilled, in there being a Rana of ]Suggur, a Thakoor 
of Veerawow, and three other principal Patels in the district, all 
descended from one family. 

The inhabitants of Parkur use tobacco sparingly, but are much 
addicted to opium, which they mix with water, forming a liquid 
called " kussoomba." This is considered by them as an emblem 
of devoted friendship, and when partaken of by adversaries to seal 
for ever the most deadly feuds. They are very superstitious, and 
undertake no journey of consequence, if the fii*st partridge, after 
leaving the place of departure, calls on the right side ; and, strange 



Nortii^ Weai Frmtl'-r of India. 99 

to nj, tbst if Lfais unlucky binl raises its voice nu ibe kft aide 
as the journej is achieved, tlie umeu in equally inatupickius. 
None of the houses are tiled iii Parlcur, it being believed that aiij- 
thiag but thatch would ofTend ihe tutelar deity. Suttee is coitt- 
mod, but the people abhor infanticide, though that odious cmlom 
it prenleat in Cutcli. Like the Rajpoots, they look for wives 
aBong other tribes. 

There is a temple in Parkur said to be dedicated lo ibe sun, 
bnt this is a subject which appears to admit of some doubt, and 
ma? be altogether erroneous. A Charun of respectability meii- 
dooed the fact of its having been built by a Purmar Ra)|>uot. 
Hnoed Raja Soor ; now " sooruj " means the sun, and thia 1 men- 
boaed to the man who gave me Ihe information, but he distinctly 
SMnred me that the temple nas dedicated lo tlie sun. 1 examined 
It iBofl minutely. It is situated on a strip of land in the lake at 
Veerawow, near some temples dedicated to Juck, ia about eight 
fact square and ten high without any spire, and something like a 
temple dedicated to Mnhadeo. Outside, on aN the faces but the 
enuance, are marble images of about three feet high, repreHeiittiig 
an idol half standing up, with the legs crossed, but unlike Paru»- 
oath, and with a round cap placed on the head, behind which and 
ibe wbole of the face is a ligure of the sun. At the door-way 
(bere is a alone, which appears to have been displaced from the 
mmle of the buildings, and on it there is also a representation of 
tbe sun. 

There is do idol in the temple, but only two very small demons' 
beads placed on the sides as ornament, and which are similar to 
ibe carving on the Banian temples at Parecmigger. Raja Soor is 
and tobave lived in 1011, and the temple is now in ruins and not 
used as a place of worship. All the people in Parkur concurred 
that it had been dedicated lo the sun. There is a temple to the 
wn at Tbann, in Katlywar ; the Purmars or Sodas fled in num- 
bers lo that country, and it would be a singular fact if this sup- 
plied a link to the chain of conffnun lea lion between the ancient 
Peruans, followers of Zoroaster, and the inhabitants of North- 
Wesl«rD India. 

This is not the only theological difficulty [0 settle in Parkur, for 
there ia a letnple close lo that of Raja Soor dedicated to Juck, a 
personage of great note at some former period, and who is said, 
many vears since, to have come from Hooinsam or Damascus. 
He has now no votaries in Parkur, but ihere are slill a very few in 
Cntch (called Sungar), to which place he fled. He is represented 
as a small squat fat figure with a conical curled cap, and wears the 
" ZBDonee " or Rrahminical string. In times of scarcity or danger 
the Hindoos atill make offerings to him. Tlicy state that boxes of 
money were formerly kept in this temple, and that wny 00c in ad- 



100 Description of the Covnfries on fhe 

versity had only to petition the god, and promise (o relum the siioi 
taken, with interest, by a slated period ; bnt some individual having 
broken his vow, the heart of the merciful Juck was hardened and 
deaf to all future requests. 

Adjoining Parkur, and close to the town of V'eerawow, com- 
mences the sandy desert, or, as it is called by the natives, the 
" Thurr" or " Dhat." It is one continned succession of sand- 
hills, increasing in bulk and height from twenty to sixty, and even 
eighty feet, the farther they extend inland. They occur in no re- 
gular order, nor are they at equal distances from one another, 
often leaving valleys of two and three miles broad, which are called 
" dehrees," where scanty crops of grain are produced after the 
monsoon. The road winds round these mounds, sometimes pass- 
ing over them. The sand is a dust of the finest powder. The 
hills are covered with stunted shrubs and different kinds of vege-,,^^^ 
tation till within a few months of the rainy season, when, tb(i^^^| 
herbage being burnt up, the sand is carried with violence froni'^^H 
one heap to uiioth^, and the region is rendered nearly uninhabit- *~ 
able. There Js no covering of turf or any closely contiguous roots 
on the lliurr, but there is a very numerous list of plants for such 
a region. The whole of these, in their berries, leaves, or fruit, 
though the spontaneous productions of the soil, are bounuTull; 
adapted to the food of man — a fact evincing the wise fitting of the 
means to the end in a portion of the globe where the most scanty 
crops are gleaned with difficulty from a dusty soil. The journey 
through such a tract is difficult; camels and horses alone traverse 
it, and the summit of one hill is no sooner gained than another 
comes in sight beyond. Hill and valley alternate, as if the surface 
had been troubled like the sea in a tempest, and left stationary ii 
its fury. 

The inhabitants of the desert consist of Bheels and wanderinf, 
tribes of Soda and other Rajpoots, Khosas and Sindees. The^' 
only permanent settlers are tlie two former, and the Bheels 
are a stout and healthy race, geil^rally tall, differing widely from 
the diminutive beings of Guzerat and Candeish. The abundance . 
of pasture brings numbers from the vicinity of Omercoie and tb 
banks of the Indus to the southern districts of this tract, as thei 
is much labour in drawing water for large herds of cattle 
great a depth from the surface. 

The people always perch their hamlets on the summit of a sand-^ 
hill, as near as possible to the water. 

A tribe of Belochees, better known by the name Khosas, lately>i 
settled in this tract. They were expelled from Sinde on the ex- 
pulsion of the Kaloras, a race of princes whom they served faith- 
fully for a long period of years. They were ill -requited, even in 
the zenith of their master's power, and have ever since roamed in 



"ace ^^ 

eels 
om 

I thai^H 
atelv>^^l 



L 



e roamed in ^^M 



Narlh-Wesl Frontier of India: 
ihe desert as wandenag robbers, and spread- terror with their 

Tl)e wells of the desert consist of small round ho.lc.s, abou 
foot and a half iu diameter, dug sotnetimes to die dejrffa of forty 
and fifty faUionui, and lined willi branches of trees. The/ are scat- 
tered through the desert, and generally found m the valley; often 
in the bed of a tank or where the rain-wuter collects. I observed 
that, in such spots, the first foot of soil was almost as hard as^oiie, 
the effect, 1 imagine, of the burning rays of the sun on ati jtn'd 
soil partially wetted. The rains are slight and irregular in the 
" TIluiT," and the water that falls is speedily absorbed by lh« 
ihiraty sand. Tliat portion of the desert which is without wells is 
oiled " rohee," and it would not be difficult to convert the whole 
of it into a useless waste, by tilling up the few that have been dug. 
This is not unfrequently done by any Rajpoot chief who has been 
driveu desperate by family feuds, or indeed any turbulent cha- 
racter. He betakes himself to this tract, and filling up the welta 
around his camp for a circuit of some miles, strengthens his posi- 
tion, and seeks revenge for real or supposed injuries by murder^ 
rapine, and bloodshed. 

I am ill-qualitied to enumerate the botanical productions eveo 
of this sterile tract, and shall therefore give their native names. 

Tlie " peloo " is a shrub with long leaves, and producing a red 
berry of the size of a currant, which is much esteemed. There are 
two kinds of it, one growing in salt soils, and with a larger and 
fuller leaf. 

The " khair " is of the babool kind, producing a berry about 
die size of an olive. 

The"koomut" appears of the sauie description, yielding a 
pea and pod, both of which are edible. 

The " kejra," the only shrub approaching to a tree (if we ex- 
cept the neem), which produces a long bean fit for food. It has a 
thorn and leaf like the babool. 

The " phoke," which is like the tamarisk, and is the fodder of 
the camel. The leaves of it are useful for food. 

The " kuraile," a kind of bauble. 

The " boora," a sort of downy grass, believed to be a certain 
cure for ilieumalism. 

The " bair " or " bore," the berries of which are eatable. 

The "babool," which yields quantities of gum for food, and 
branches to line the wells. 

The " neem" tree, which here flourishes in great luxuriance, 
and is known as a specific in medicine with the natives of the 
East ; but its fruit is used as food in the desert, 

The " kaudaira," milk-bush, which is used medicinally; also 
the "akra." 



t 

102 Dr'sctiption ofihe Countries on (he 

There are . b^didea three other shrubs called " veekree," which 
produces a £!o\^r; ^* lano/' which grows like heather, and '^ umee/' 
from which^hooka pipes are made. 

Water;-'fa^IoiiS9 called '^ karinga/' are abundant in the hot season, 
and there* id also a fruit of the melon species, called '' troosra/' 
which is bitter and used as a medicine for horses. 

Thp different sorts of grass are numerous. One species, called 

*i ^uhgaitra," abounds ; another, called '^ murt," yields in its seeds 

j^il^all grain like bajree, which is eaten by the natives. 

• . ^ It may be the want of what man considers as his appropriate 

/. "-food which has driven these miserable beings to glean subsistence 

'■V'from wild plants; but certain it is that this inhospitable tract 

•*.. would be lost to the world without them. It is singular that the 

rich commodity of '^ ghee '' is so abundantly produced in a country 

of such sterility and desolation. 

Such is the desert and district of Parkur adjoining it ; and it 
may be well said that nature's gifts have, indeed, been here dealt 
out sparingly. If the people cannot find an excuse, they have 
certainly some palliation in plundering the more favoured sons of 
Adam. In the sale of their daughters and violation of a temple 
to extract money from the votaries of its god, we readily dis- 
cover that they arise in pinching poverty and squalid misery. 

The Nueyur. — At a distance of about fifty miles from where 
the river Loonee falls into the Runn of Cutch, about the latitude 
of 24^ 30', it sends off numerous branches. Like the main stream, 
these pursue a most meandering course, from the nature of the soil, 
through a valley, and again form a junction with the river before 
entering the Runn. The tract under the influence of these rivers 
is called Nueyur^ and is a flat and fertile district, with an extent 
of about three hundred and fifty square miles^ stretching from 
north-east to south-west. At its southern extremity it is about 
twelve miles broad, but it gradually decreases towards the northern 
till the sand-hills of the desert^ which increase in bulk, hem in 
the river on both sides, and bid defiance to agriculture. 

I'he name of Nueyur is of doubtful signification; it means, in 
the language of the country, near, and is said to be so called from 
the nearness of the water at all places to the surface ; the term is 
confined to the portion of the country under irrigation from the 
river, and is never applied to that beyond its influence. Wheat is 
its universal production. 

The Nueyur is studded with villages ; the chief places of note 
are Gurra and Nuggur, both on the western bank, the one with a 
population of about two thousand, and the other of one thousand 
five hundred souls. Altogether there are about forty inhabited 
places in the district. It is very populous as compared with the 



North-iVesl Frontier of India. 103 

neighbouTiiig countries, for to the west is the Thurr or sandy 
desert, and on the east iLe district of Sachore, which has a scanty 
and indiS'ereiit supply of fresh water. In its course through the 
Nuejur, the Loonee river seems to have separated one portion of 
the desert from another ; for on either side the general features of 
it are easily recognised in the occurring succession of sund-hilla 
and the growth of plants iudigenous to a smidy country. The 
mounds on the Isachore side are much smaller than on the other, 
and the river probably prevents the aand from blowing upon ihcm. 
The traditions of the people record that the Nueyur was an arm 
of the sea when the Rimn was under water. 

The Loonee river, which contributes so much to the fertility of 
the Nueyiir, is here most diminutive. It is rather a torrent than 
a river, nowhere is it a running stream but in the rainy season, 
nor throughout the Nueyur is it broader than one hundred and 
fifty feet, nor deeper in its channel than ten or twelve below the 
level of the country. This shallowness cuuses great and sudden 
overflows during the rains, for the Loonee is the only channel by 
which the rain that falls in Marwar, and the mountains eastward of 
it, is conveyed to the ocean. The richness of the Nueyur doubtless 
arises from the alluvion which it deposits in the inundations— 
Uiese do not occur annually, but are irregular and dependent on 
the quantity of rain that Falls. 

The Loonee, though it be not at all times a running stream, has 
pools of water in its channel, and affords an ample supply of 
water from pits or wells dug in its sandy beds, which are a great 
blessing to the inhabitants of such a country. Herds of cuttle 
likewise derive from the rich pasture of its meadows a nutritious 
support, and the oxen and kine of the district are of a superior 
description. DufTaloes are reared in considerable numbers, and 
there is also abundance of fodder for camels. Wild liog and game 
abound on the banks of tlie river among the peeloo and tamarisk 
shrubs, which are generally to be found in Indian rivers. The 
presence of herds and flocks brings the tiger, hysena, and the wolf, 
with other beasts of prey, to the banks of the river ; crocodiles are 
found in the pools, but of a small description ; wild duck and par 
tridge abound, and among the latter is the black partridge, noted 
for the richness and beauty of its plumage. 

To the Loonee alone is this abundance of animal and vegetable 
life to be attributed, 

When the inundation does not attain the necessary height to 
irrigate the country, the fields are watered by artificial means, and 
with great facility, from thu proximity of the water to the surface. 
An Hbundant havest is derived. During some seasons the Nueyur 
is a sheet of water, ami the Loonee river sometimes discharges the 
superfluity of its waters into the desert. 



I 



>9 
99 



104 Description of the Countries on the 

The soil of the Nueyur is a brownish clay, very tenacious and 
yielding crops of the heaviest kind. The beds of all its branches 
are sandy, but the soil near them is slimy. 

The humid soil of the Nueyur does not appear to have any 
effect on the constitutions of the inhabitants, but they may escape 
the diseases incidental to such places from the elevation of their 
villages, which are always built on mounds or sand-hills to prevent 
calamity by a sudden overflow of the river. Some of the people 
complained of an enlarged spleen, which was universally attributed 
to too copious a use of water (perhaps of an indifferent sort) when 
suffering from fever. The variation of the thermoineter in the 
Nueyur is more evident than in the neighbouring countries. At 
sunrise, in December, it fell below 32^ and rose to 80^ in the heat 
of the day. The houses of the inhabitants in the larger places are 
constructed of sun-dried brick procured from the river ; but in 
the smaller villages they have conical grass huts> which are peculiar 
to the desert ; they are like bee-hives ; the twigs of the '* phoke 
form their walls, while the roof consists of those of the *^ akra 
covered with grass. The poverty of the country is seen in those 
simple dwellings ; and the following couplet, which is a proverb in 
the country, describes this portion of Marwar : — 

*• Akun kee lukree phokon kee vxtr^*' 
In the ** akra '' twigs and phoke walls ; 

** Ditee Raja teree Marwar,** 
Behold, oh king ! your Marwar. 

The inhabitants of the Nueyur consist chiefly of the Chuwan 
and Rhatore Rajpoots and their retainers. It is in the dominions 
of the Raia of Joodpoor, but is not a separate province, being 
partly in the districts of Jhallore and Sachore. 

The wealth of the Nueyur early attracted the attention of the 
Khosas of the desert, who have made such havoc among its herds 
that great part of the population have quitted it for a less dis- 
turbed, though less favoured country to the eastward. Those who 
still remain are of necessity compelled to pay an annual tribute or 
black mail to these robbers, and by a sacrifice of a portion of their 
wealth secure the remainder. 

They pay a tax of a *' sye " or two maunds of grain, and a 
rupee on each plough. 

The dread of the Khosas is nevertheless very great among these 
people, for they yet cross the Nueyur to plunder farther in the 
interior of the Joodpoor territory. 

The approach of a body of Khosas excites a great alarm among 
the people ; they have a fellow-feeling for each other, and the 
intimation travels by express camels from one village to another as 



North'lVest Frontier of India. 105 

quick as ever did the Cross of Peter the Hermit when he preached 
fab crusade. The lands in the Nue^ur are held by feudatories of 
the Joodpoor chief, who received them on condition of protecting 
[he frontiers. They are styled " iloomias," and are free from any 
other burdens than what the Khosas have imposed upon them, 

Javsulmber. — Theprincipalilyof Ja3snhneer isone of the five 
Rajpoot states lying on the north- western side of India. Of all of 
ihem it is the least considerable in im])orlauce ; it lias not the wealth 
or resourcesof Joodpooror Jyepoor, nor has it ihe family import- 
ance nhich exalts Oodeepoor ; and though nearly on a par with 
Beecaneer, it is inferior lo it both in revenue and political im- 
portance. 

Jaysulmeer occupies a space of about twenty thousand square 
miles ; it is a country of an oblong, but irregular shape, with the 
greatest length from north-east to soulh-wesl, which may be 
estimated at one hundred and eighty miles. Its average breadth 
is sisly. It is comprised between the parallels of 25° and 28° of 
north latitude, and meridians of 09" and 72° of east longitude. 
The capital, Jaysulmeer, is below the centre of the space so 
bounded, about the tine of 26° 56'. This country is the resi- 
dence of the Bhaltee tribe of Raj poots, and is ruled by a chief of 
the body, called Rawul. 

Two centuries ago the territory of Jaysulmeer was mnch more 
extensive tlian is above described, and is said to have comprised 
the country around for a distance of two hundred and tifty miles, 
and lo have had its western limits bounded by the Indus. It has 
been the misfortune of this state to become unhinged by a 
imbulent and predatory race of chieftains who held lands on 
the extremities of the kingdom, where they could defy the attacks 
of their ruler. A successioi) of internal feuds among themselves 
has, on more than one occasion, led them to commit acts of in- 
fidelity towards the stale, and to surrender the frontier forts to 
their enemies. 

The Daoodpootras, on the north-west, have risen into importance 
partly by tlie dismemberment of Jaysulmeer, but it is surrounded 
on all sides by ponerfnl neighbours. To the east, south, and 
south-east adjoins Joodpoor, and to the south-west it has the 
territories of the Ameers of Sinde, and their relative, Meer 
Sohrab. To the north-west is the country of the Daoodpootras, 
and to the north and north-east that of Beecaneer. Thus 
encompassed by live different powers, Jaysulmeer has been kept 
in ■ constant state of disorder. Eighty years since, the Daoodpoo- 
tras wrested from it the fertile territory towards the Indus, and 
about the same lime Dilawur and its dependencies were also sur- 



I 



lOG Detcription of tke CMintrifs on the 1 

rendered through the treachery of its chief. Joodpoor, on the 
other hand, hai possessed itself of Pokrun, on tlie east, and the 
surrounding territory. Pooggul, with its dependent villag;ea, hu 
transferred its allegiance to the nearer capital of Heecaneer, ami 
the countiy left is but lilile belter than the desert which environs it 

On [he paitilion of the nine forls of Marwar, as the iracli- 
tiona of the country have it, the portion which fell to the share of 
the Bhattee Rajpoots was Loodurwa and its territory. Tliii 
was the old principality of Jaysulnieer, ihc capital of which, so 
named, is now a mean village, about eight miles westward of the 
modem city. About fourteen generations since, the chiefs of 
Jaysulnieer took the tille of Rawul, or Lord, and bound them- 
selves to adopt an orange colour as a national emblem, in their 
lenta, horse-cloths, 8tc., to which ihey still adhere, and for which 
they believe that their rule will be stable. The first exploit* of 
the Uhattees are disfigured by fabulous tales, among which 
occur both gods and men. The earliest authentic fact which ft 
preserved is the reign of one Jaysul, a prince of amlMtioa 
views, who founded the present cnpilal and the beautiful 
castle of Jaysulmeer, so called from his name. Since tbcD 
Jaysiilmeer has been desenedly famous for its battlements, wbid^ 
in the songs of the country, are said to surpass, and I beliSM 
with truili, those of Agra, Delhi, and Beecaneer. 

The country was invaded by the Delhi sovereigns in te ra|B 
of Jaysul, and subdued by the Mahouiedans after a si^e <rf 
twelve years, but it was ulliinalely reslored to the Bhattee cbidt. 
The era in which this prince reigned is ditlicult to determine 
some believe it to have been seven hundred years ago. From Art 
time the coin of Jaysulmeer has borne the name of the DdU 
sovereigns on one side, and that of the ruler of the country on Ac 
other. Among the Rajpoot states, the reigning princes tridos 
coin in their own name, but in that of some distinguished u* 
cestor. The rupees of Jaysulmeer are of Ukia, those of Joo^ 
poor, of Beejy ; both deceased rajahs. 

A list of the Rawuls, for the two last centuries, presents to new 
the names of three who have each retgned upwards of forty yeaiB, 
though the period has been a calamitous one for the state ; with 
two exceptions at the beginning of the era alluded to, when dw 
government was disputed, all have died a natural death. 

The present Rawul, by name GuJ Sing, ascended the throm 
about eleven years since; he is a mild and popular prince ; hisprV> 
decesaor Moolraojee formed a treaty of friendship with the Bntiih 
government which has been rigidly adhered toby Guj Sing. His 
father and grandfather are both living, but blind ; and he owes hit 
elevation to the favour of a minister, who excluded two elder 



North-iVeil Frontier nf India. 107 

>rotiieTS. This minialer, though a Banian, and mean in origin, iii- 
[ralialed tiimself wilh the Rawul, and actually possessed the 
iriiole power of the slate. His arbitrary conduct excited the 
mssioDS of Uie son of Moolraojee, by name Rasaingjee, who 
nurdered the minister's father, and fled to Joodpoor. Here he 
esided for ten years ; but this long lapse of time was insufficient 
lo moderate the revenge of the Banian ; he invited the young 
|>rince, with his fanuly, to return, and immediately on their 
titering the country, dispatched him and his two sons by poison, 
fluman nature shudders to believe that the parent could have 
>eeii an accessary to such a deed ; but it is currently believed, 
hat Moolraojee knew of his minisler'a intentions. 

The Bhattee chieftains are constantly quarrelling with each 
nher, and quit the country on the shghtest cause of offence, that 
hey may re-enter it, and demand justice by force of arms. They 
iien infiict on it every injury they can devise, so that the effects of 
Ibeae frequent turmoils are much felt in so contracted a territory. 
[t is difKcult to comprehend the feeling which so soon estranges 
t chief from the soil in which he was reared, and leads him lo 
leediessly persecute the innocent inhabilants of his native place, 

gratify his revenge. In following the dictates of this passion, 
■either sex nor age is a safeguard. Old and young are despoiled 
tf their property, and sometimes slain in protecting it ; children 
tre stolen from their parents, in hopes of ransom ; and the herds 
ind flocks become the prey of him who, but a few days previous, 
vould have willingly sacrificed his life to protect their owners from 
s! under. 

The principalityof Jaysulmeer is barren and unproductive, with 
iltte arable land; but there ia, nevertheless, a distinction of a 
narked nature between it and the " Thurr," or desert, which sur- 
onnds it. The one is rocky — the other sandy. Jaysulmeer, in 
general, has an uneven surface, and is covered with tow rocks; 
tone of them ever rise into hills, or can be said to run in chains, 
>eing indiscriminately scattered throughout. Cultivation is most 
iCanty : there was scarcely a field for forty miles, nor would more 
faan a third of the land admit of tillage. The parts which are 
:ullivated yield good crops of the coarser grains, such as bajree 
ind moong, which form the food of the inhabitants. There is not 

1 wheat field in the country ; and ihe cotton crops are only reaped 
ifter a three years' fostering care of the husbandman. 

In some of the valleys to which the rain-water descends, a plant 
tstled " ikkur," a sort of hemp, grows wild, and cordage is made 
torn it by the usual process of steeping in water. 

The soil of Javsulmeer, where the sand-hills do not run ii 



I 



t, is a light, clayey sand ; 
Iffords tolerable crops. 



I) upon 

when it sufficiently covers the rocks, it 



]08 Description of the Countries on the 

The district is better suited for pasture tlmn agriculture, but 
neither herds nor flocks are abundant. The cattle are not of a 
superior quality ; the sheep are small, and resemble more the ani- 
mal of Europe than Asia. The ghee of the country is said to 
possess a peculiar flavour, which makes it prized — arising, as is be- 
lieved, from the nature of the grass. The vtool of ^he sheep is 
also, from the same cause, said to derive the superiority which it 
undoubtedly possesses over that of the neighbouring countries — 
Beecaneer excepted. 

The periodical rains are scanty and uncertain, and water is sel- 
dom or ever found nearer the surface than one hundred and 
eighty feet. The viells, in some places, were even so deep as 
eighty fathoms, or four hundred and eighty feet. The absence of 
this necessary of life has induced exertions of an extraordiuary 
nature to preserve the water of the heavens: large and spacious 
tanks occur every two or three miles, and the hard clayey tena- 
city of the soil, in which they are dug, retains the supply for a 
long period. The dykes of these tanks present a compact ram- 
part, which, with very Hltle pains, might be converted into pur- 
poses of defence. 

Jaysulmeer has no rivers. After the rains, it is said that water 
is found nearer the surface than at other seasons ; which seems 
probable, for there Is no channel by which it may be carried off, 
and it no doubt sinks into the soil. So great, however, is the 
labour of drawing water from wells, that they are never used if it 
be possible to procure a supply elsewhere. 

Approaching Jaysulmeer from the south, the depth of water 
from the surface increases, though there is no perceptible rise be- 
tween Ualmeer and Jaysulmeer. The well water of the one is 
sixteen, and the other sixty fathoms from the surface. The whole 
territory of Jaysulmeer is hemmed in by sand-hills ; and the whole 
country is strewed with small, white, round pebbles of quartz; 
and, str;uige to say, the summits of all the elevations, even among 
the sand-hills, are covered with them and gravel. In the " Thurr" 
itself, the hills are always of unmixed, pure saud, though there are 
rocks of limestone, porphyry, &c., dispersed over it at diU'erent 
places. 

The sterility of Jaysulmeer arises from no political causes. The 
little wealth which it does posse.ss springs from its central situa- 
tion, as being a place of note between India and the Indus, and 
the duties imposed on the transit of merchandise thus sent con- 
stitutes nearly the every resource of its ruler. It has no exports of 
its owu, and the only article peculiar to this country (though it ia 
also manufaclured in Beecaneer) is a kind of woollen cloth, of very 
tine texture, called " looee," deriving its superiority froni the woo), ~ 
which is very soft, and a1wa)s of u white colour. The while aheep 




Norlh-fVcst Frontier of India. 109 

wliicb yield this valuable commodily are not found in India, where 
the aainials are larv«r, and often black. Between Jaysulmeer and 
Joodpoor, a distance of one hundred and eighty miles only, this 
difference even is marked. The " looees" of Jaysulmeer, how- 
ever, are in no demand : ihey may be had at the value of from 
four to forty rupees. 

There are some merchants of opulence resident at Jaysulmeer. 
From twenty to twenty-five thousand maunds of opium pass annu- 
ally through the country to Sinde, from which it is exported, by 
Kurrachee Bunder, to the Portuguese settlement of Deniaun. 
I^ulphur, Bssafixtida, rice, and tobacco, are the return articles of 
transit from Sinde. From Malwa, it receives indigo and cloths, 
chied; cotton; from Jeypoor and Delhi, sugar; also, iron and 
brass from Nagore; and as every thing depends on the tranquillity 
of the country, that no suspension of trade, and consequently de- 
crease of revenue, may arise, the Rawnl of Jaysulmeer has a great 
iuducement to live at peace. 

The revenues of Jaysulmeer are inconsiderable — something 
under two lacs of rupees yearly, and more than half of this sum 
a d«nved from transit duties. On each camel-load of opium 
twenty rupees are levied. The remainder of the sum is made up by 
fines and levies, and the land revenue, which latter does not exceed 
one-tenth or one-eleventh of the net produce, is chiefly derived 
frotn Beecunipoor, and its eighty-four villages. There are 
also about twelve hundred rupees derived from a monopoly 
111 salt, which is made about sixty miles north-west of Jaysulmeer, 
ill a saline tract among the sand-hills ; but this article, as well as 
grain, is imported from the neighbouring countries. 

Jaysulmeer, everywhere but in its capital, bears the strongest 
inarms of poverty. 

The city of Jaysulmeer is handsome; its houses are lofty, and 
even spacious, terrace -roofed, and built entirely of a hard, yellow 
kind of marble, which is sometimes elegantly carved. The streets 
■re wide for an eastern city, and some regularity has been observed 
in laying them out. It caimot contain less than twenty thousand 
soula. The fort, or castle, of Jaysulmeer, which crowns a rocky 
hill on (he south-western angle of the city, has a most commanding 
and magiiiticent appearance, it is triangular in shape, presenting 
die two longest sides, which are each about three hundred yards, 
to the west and north. It is a mass of towers, built of hard, squared 
stoue, tapering to the top, and which are studded over every accli- 
vity of the hill almost to the exclusion of the curtain. In all places, 
this mass of fortiticution is double, and in some places treble, and 



• Alwul 20,0110/. Bteiliii^. 



thoj 



^^m 



1 12 Description of the Cotmhies on the 

honeycombed by ilie desert rat. Vultures and Lawka are abun- 
dant; and I also reinaiked llie raven, which 1 believe is not gene- 
rally seen in India, The camels of Jaysulmeer are small, and 
not so highly esteemed as those of Maiwar. The animals used 
by the nierchanUf for the transport of goods have by no means a 
strong appearance — they are lean and bnky. The homed cattle 
are indifl'erent, but not diminutive. ButFaloes are reared : they 
are turned loose, without an attendant, to graze, and return of 
themselves to be milked. 

The climate and temjwroture of Jaysulmeer does not riiffer from 
what is to be expected from its position : while the sun is south of 
the equator the cold is great ^ on the other hand, the heat of 
summer is most oppressive from the vicinity of tlie sand-hills of 
the desert. Sand is universally allowed to be a cause of heat, and 
it assuredly also, iu the cold season, contributes to the general 
bleakness. On entering the sand-hills from the plain, the increase 
of cold was always perceptible, and on dismounting from horse- 
back it could be felt through the sole of the boot. For ten days 
in January the thermometer never rose above 75° at S p.m., nor 
sunk below 30° in a tent at sunrise. Ice was to be seen daily, 
but it never exceeded a quarter of an inch in thickness. The 
lai^e tank of Jaysulmeer was frozen in the morning. 1 remarked 
a peculiarity in the wells. In the morning they were always to be 
seen sending up a 'vapour like smoke, and, instead of drawing 
water of a proportional coldness to the depth from the surface, it 
was quite warm ; [ find, too, that this is not at all peculiar to 
Jaysulnieer, but common in lliia part of India. At one place, 
where the water was only twenty-five feet from the surface, 1 found 
its temperature higher than that of tank and river water by 12% 
and 3° above that of the atmosphere at about ten in the morning. 
Id the hot season, there is said to be no difTercnce between the 
temperature of river and well water, which is only observable 
in the cold months; the deeper the water is from the surface, 
the greater will be the heal. It it dJHicult to account for this fact, 
unless it is believed that rain heats the ground, and consequently 
the water; for the natives have an idea that the snakes, which 
come out of their holes after rain, are expelled by the heat and 
closeness. 

The influence of the S.W. monsoon is unquestionably felt at 
Jaysulmeer, but the fall of rain is described as less than in the 
countries eastward of it. Approaching the Indus from the East, 
rain is more and more scanty. In Malwa the fall exceeds that of 
Meywar, and again the rains in that principality are more heavy 
than those of Marwar, while, in the latter district, they exceed 
those of Jaysulmeer, where they are more abundant thaa the 




NoTth-TFesl Frontier nf India. 1 13 

country of llie Daoodpootras bejond it. I believe it has not jet 
been determined how far tlie indueiice of tlie soiilli-west monsoon 
extends. 

Tlie vicinilj' of Jajsulmeer to tlie Mahommedaii iialions west- 
ward of it, and the approach to Persia, are discoverable in tlie dia- 
lect of the people. The language in common use is Marwuree, 
which is 3 distinct dialect. In Jayaiihiieer numerous Persian 
words occur, but tliere is no difference between the language of 
the higher and lower orders — all speak Marwaree. The Kajpoots 
are too proud to turn their minds to learning, and it is rare to find 
any of them, even the highest, who can either read or write, 
though they are the rulers of the land. The children of the 
Banians and Brahmins are alone sent to school, and it is to this 
advantage in early life that they owe their afler-infiueiice in society. 

Jaysulmecr is as destitute in the mineral as in the vegetable 
kingdom. 1 could not hear of any metallic substance being pro- 
curable in tlie country. In one spot the rocks seemed impregnated 
with iron, but this was doubtful. The stone of Jaysulmeer is 
primary limtstone of a dark, yellow coluur, iiol unlike kiln-burnt 
clay. Some of it is more closely grained than others, and one 
■pecies, called by the natives " haidoo," is exceedingly hnrd, and 
takes on a rich polish ; it is marble, and in great request, and is 
tu be found in diHerent parts of the country formed into various 
descriptions of vessels. It is fit for purposes of lithography, and 
may be had in blocks of sixty and eighty feet without an iiiter- 
rening ^ciiu Tlic richer edifices in the capitui are ornamented 
with it, but the common stone of Jaysulmecr is also well adapted 
for tliat purpose. It is curious to behold lattice and net work as 
neatly executed in slone as if it had been the labour of the first 
artist in sculpture. The architecture of Jaysulmeer is handsome, 
1 imagine, from such an abundance of good material. The tombs 
and pagodas have a near resemblance to the style of llie Cliinesej 
and the pillars are exceedingly light and chaste, The house, or 
mansion, of the tale minister is most handsome ; from its appear- 
ance one would imagine the carving to be in wood, but it is deeply 
cut in stone, and lichly beautiful ; it lowers over every building in 
the city, and tapers to the summit. Much money hus been wasted 
in the iiiteiiur ornaments of gilding, &c., but they sink into in- 
significance when compared with the exterior. 

The sand hilU of the dcseit, or Thurr, as it is more properly 
called, attracted my most particular attention. At one place I 
cro'sed a tract of forty miles with them intervening at intervals, 
and patticulurly noted their appearance at the cdc;es and centre. 
Tbey occur in no regular order, and for some time 1 considered 
them as a chaotic confusion of mounds ; latterly I discovered this 
opinion to be erroneous, for the blutf side^, pailicularly at the 



] 14 Description of the Countries on the 

edges, were always turned towards the east or north-east, and the 
sloping sides in a contrary direction, which agrees with the influ- 
ence that the prevailing winds must always exercise over this tract. 
The sand hills were partially overgrown with grass and jungle 
shrubs, which in some places were burnt up or blasted by the 
cold, for the ^^phoke'^and ^^akra" wither and die under it. None 
of the mounds were naked, excepting such as had been cleared 
near a village by the hand of man. The sand hills had an appear- 
ance of permanence as much as other hills, but there can be no 
doubt that the sand of the one is blown on another during the 
winds of the hot months. At this time vegetation is parched up, 
and the natives spoke with dread of the approach of that disagret^- 
able season. 

It would be useless for me to enter on any general account of 
the Rajpoots of Jaysulmeer, as they differ in no way from other 
tribes of that people. They have, in common with them, those 
keen feelings of honour and high notions of their dignity. There 
is as much nicety observed in taking their seats before their prince, 
as if their lives depended on the proximity to him. In the absence 
of certain chiefs, their place is left vacant. The Rajpoots of 
Jaysulmeer have followed the modern fashion of the neighbouring 
states in their rage for wives of the Soda caste. The Rawul has 
one of them ; but the lady of the first consequence in his seraglio 
19 the Seesodia Ranee, for whom he made a rapid and romantic 
journey to the city of Oodeepoor, some years since. 

I may mention something concerning the interview with the 
Rawul of Jaysulmeer, which will serve to give an idea of the 
appearance which he is enabled to maintain, and his people 
generally. After all preliminaries hud been arranged, we entered 
the city in the afternoon, about five o'clock, and reached the gate 
of the castle in about five minutes, where our people were de- 
tained ; we continued to advance on horseback, and passed through 
four strong gates, till we alighted at the door of the palace, and 
were conducted, by an officer of the court, through five or six 
courts, and as many narrow and daik staircases, leading from one 
area to another. Every place, where the space would admit of it, 
was lined with the guards of the prince, there being a different 
desciiption of men in each court. The Seiks, I observed, were 
nearest the person of the prince. Two flights of steps from the 
sunnnit, we were met by the prime minister, a Brahmin, and in- 
troduced by him to the prince. On enteiing, Gujsing rose from 
his throne, which was at one end of the room, and, advancing a 
few steps on a cushion, stretched out his open hand, (which is 
simply touched by the person introduced,) and then desired us to 
be seated on a cushion, spread in front of his '* gaddee," and 
nearly on a level with it. On both sides of him sat the chiefs and 




of influence in the country, arranged in regular order ; beliind 
hint were his relnlions and donieslics, and on Iuh ri^lit hand slood 
his minister. Tiiere might have been three hundred persons 
present, but the apartment was small and without ornament: a 
strict silence was preserved, an<l this, with the cleanly whiteness of 
iheir garments, gave a considerable solemnity to the scene. The 
appearance of the Knwul himself was most dignified ; he is rather 
■tout, buthas both an intelligent and pleasingcuiinlenance. He was 
plainly dressed, without any other ornaments than a pair of ele- 
gant gold bracelets, and an ornament of rubies Biid diamonds on 
hia turban, which latter was of blue speckled clolh, exceedingly 
small, higher on one side than aiioiher, and not unlike a Persian 
cap. Before him stood his shield, which was handsomely, but not 
richly ornamented ; the bosses were of amber, and the flowers 
embroidered on it were of precious stones. 

He was most affjble during the interview, which lasted nearly 
an flour. He was full of professions of friendship to the British, 
and urged most strenuously that his own anxiety, and that of his 
auoeslors, to cultivate the favour of the government, were proof 
sufficient of his sincerity. He offered a private interview to us, 
which was declined. He was most anxious tu be informed on various 
points relating to our customs — how we ale cgga, and in what 
manner butter was used in our food, and some other such questions, 
showing such an ignorance of our habits as was to be looked for 
from one in his remote situation. He betrayed, nevertheless, no 
surprise at our dress, but made a particular request afterwards for 
some articles of English manufacture. In opposition to the 
general taciturnity of such assemblages, the Rawul alone spoke, 
and he did so almost without intermission; his courtiers shouted 
in exclamations of admiration as lie tinished each sentence. On quit- 
ting the palace, the usual ceremony of presenting us with " betel 
nut" was attended to, and the Hawnl himself sprinkled us with 
sandal-oil and rose-water. AW these articles were brought in on 
salvers and vessels of gold, richly embossed. His highness made us 
presents of two horses, with shawls and cloths, of some value. He 
■Iso sent us six trajs of presents, some basketsfull of sweetmeats, 
and insisted on guarding and entertaining us while in his capital, 
md evinced no jealousy in our visiting all parts of the city. 



JooDpoon, OR Marwa 
most extensive principality c 



— Joodpoor, or Marwar, is the 
Hajpoolana, and one of the 
largest dominions now ruled by any native prince in India, 
it has a rival among the Itajpoot slates, in the neighbouring 
territory of Jeypoor; but the Hajas of that country, though 
possessing an equal revenue, are more circumscribed in powCT^ 
and limits. Joodpoor must ever exercise more 





1 16 Description of the Countries on the 

the affairs of the adjacent country, as the ruler of it is a Rhatore, 
the tribe which includes by far the most numerous portion of the 
whole Rajpoot race. The Rajas of Beecaneer (one of the five prin- 
cipal states), Kishengud, Eeder, Rutlam, with many others of 
inferior note to the eastward, are all Rhatores ; and the Joodpoor 

Erince being allowed on all hands to be the head of the family, 
e must be considered as the chief of a great nation, and exer- 
cising influence beyond the line of his own wide-spread kingdom. 
The territory immediately subject to Joodpoor extends from 
east to west about two hundred and sixty miles, and from north to 
south about a like distance. It is contained between 70° and 75"^ 
east longitude, and 24° and 28"* north latitude. On the east it 
has the states of Oodeepoor and Jeypoor, with the British terri- 
tory of Ajmere,from all of which it is separated by a massy bulwark 
of mountains. On the north it adjoins Beecaneer, and to the 
west it has the territories of Jaysulmeer and Sinde. So late as 
1813, it had the fortress of Omercote, near the Indus, as its 
boundary in that quarter, but it was then captured by the Ameers 
of SiiKle ; since which, the line of boundary between these 

Jowers has been a constant subject of dispute. On the south, 
oodpoor has the district of Seerooee, and Thurraudree, which is 
tributary to the Dewan of Palhanpoor. Seerooee was, at a late 
period, a portion of the Joodpoor dominions, but the Rao (so the 
chief is called) is now independent, and posesses a tower of 
strength in the massy mountain of Aboo. Joodpoor occupies 
about seventy thousand square miles. 

The Joodpoor dominions are, generally speaking, well peopled, 
and the territory is valuable. Its wealth seems hitherto to have 
been much overlooked ; and it has been erroneously considered as 
a portion of the sandy desert. Its exports in wheat are consider- 
able, and the soil is favourable to many other descriptions of 
grain ; and in the central parts most productive. The country 
consists of open and extensive plains ; the hills are confined to the 
southern parts, below the Loonec river. To the north and west, 
Joodpoor extends into the Thurr, or, as it is called, the Desert ; 
and, though the soil is poor, yet the valleys among the sand hills 
furnish a superior description of bajrec. In different parts of 
M arwar there are extensive tracts of land impregnated with salt, 
which yield large quantities of that commodity. Lead and anti- 
mony are found in the hills of Joodpoor, but the country has few 
treasures of the mineral kingdom. 

The present Rhatore race of Joodpoor have a well-authenticated 
account of their lineage for many generations. They came ori- 
ginally from Kanoje in Hindoostan, and are descended of Seeajee, 
rajah of that place, who was invited by the Pallecwa I>iuhnun:> of 
Pallee to be their lord, in Sumniut ) \76, about a.d. 1 120. Imuie- 



NoTth-lf'esl Frontier of India. 



diatel; after this event they possessed themselves of ihe country 
' of the Goel Rajpoots at Keir, on the Looiiee ; and also of that of 

tlie Puriar Rajpoots of Muiuiour, the old capital of Marwar. 
Two younger sons seized on Eeder and the countries around. 
From Seeojee they give eleven generations lo one Ridmuljie, who 
had twenty-four sons, from whom the principal Rhatore families 
now claim descent. The youngest of these, by name Joda, by 
unaoimoiTs consent was raised to be ruler ; and built the present 
city of Joodpoor as hia capital, in Suinmut Ij15, a.d. 1459- 
For6ve generations from Jotia, the title of the family was simply 
thai of Hao, but the Emperor Acbar conferred on Oodeesing 
that of Raja, which his posterity have retained. From Oodeesing 
there have been only ten princes to the present Raja Man 
Sing. 

The above outline of events in Joodpoor was procured from 
the records of the chief of Awoh ; and it is corroborated on 
all points by other history. The rajas of Joodpoor were in 
high favour with the Delhi sovereigns, of whom latterly they held 
their lands : Servant of Delhi is one of the titles retained by them 
on their seal ; and Ihey are still proud of displaying a flag which 
was conferred on them by the House of Tiniour. The Moghul 
influence in Joodpoor was followed by that of the Mahrattas, to 
whom tribute was paid by the rajas till the llritish interfered to 
settle matters in Marwar. Of the history and politics of this 
country, since it entered into a treaty with the East India Com- 
pany about eleven years since, everything is known, and I dwell 
not on the subject. 

1 will not pass over iu silence, however, the present Raja of 
Joodpoor, Man Sing, who has acted so prominent a part in the 
affairs of Rajpoolana for these twenty-five years past. He suc- 
ceeded to the throne on the death of his cousin, Bheen Sing ; and, 
fortunately for himself, held it when tlie British formed their 
treaties with the state; as the posthumous son of his deceased 
relative has, since then, made several nnsuccessful attempts on 
Marwar. This young man is believed by many to be of spurious 
origin. The character of Raja Man Sing is full of contra- 
diction; he is, at the same time, a man of superior intellect, and 
the slave of the priesthood — the servile imitator of men who have 
adopted the gaib of sanctity to advance worldly ends, and yet a 
most able and wily politician, full of energy and firmness when 
such are required of him. He has e\changed the religion of bis 
forefathers for one which excites abhorrence in the minds of hia 
people; yet his sincerily in the creed is doubted. For some 
years past he has withdrawn himself from an active share in the 
concerns of the stale ; and, to all outward appearance, is employ- 
ing the remnant of his days in acts of charity and devotion : yet it 



] 



1 18 Description of the Countries on the 

is known that he keeps a vigilant eye on all that is passing in his 
government. It is more than probable that his secession from 
pomp and state arises from his wish to avoid his nobles, many of 
whom have acted treacherously towards him. This semblance of 
devotion is probably assumed, for Man Sing, when formerly over* 
powered by a cabal in his kingdom, feigned the part of a reli- 
gious lunatic, and was placed as such under restraint. When 
the storm had passed he threw oiF the disguise of insanity, and 
has since ruled with a vigour which has terrified his chiefs, and 
lost for him the esteem of his brotherhood. 

The chiefs of the Uhatore nation are numerous and powerful ; 
they hold their estates, like those of others in Rajpootana, on the 
tenure of military service ; and it is said that the Raja of Jood* 
poor can bring into the field, on an occasion of common danger, 
not less than sixty thousand men, exclusive of mercenaries enter- 
tained by himself. 

The tenure on which these nobles hold their lands will serve to 
explain their power, and the wealth of the kingdom at large. 

Land in Joodpoor is held on these tenures : — first, by chiefs, or 
Pataeets, as they are called from the word " putta," the title of 
the document ; secondly, by Boomeeas, who are grassias, and so 
called from *' boom/' meaning land ; thirdly, by religious orders. 

1st. — The lands held by the Pataeets, or different Rajpoot 
chiefs, are not resumable by the raja ; but if any chief conduct 
himself in a rebellious or contumacious manner towards the go- 
vernment the raja can lay his estate under sequestration, but it 
must be ultimately given to another member of the family. These 
lands are portioned out on the condition of each landholder fur- 
nishing a mounted soldier for every thousand beegas ; or, as some 
have it, for every thousand rupees of annual income derived there- 
from. This contingent is at all times liable to be called on to 
serve anywhere within the dominions of Joodpoor. When occa- 
sion requires it, each Pataeet is also bound to bring along with 
his quota of horse ail his retainers and the younger branches of 
the family, whom he supports as being their chief. On such 
occasions the chieftains have an inducement to serve with credit, 
as they are rewarded for important services by additions to their 
estates. The raja may increase the contingent of any Pataeet by 
giving him more land, but it is not in his power to make a *^ Boo* 
meea,*' which is the second tenure on which lands are held in the 
kingdom. 

£d. — Boomeeas hold their possessions by grants of an old date^ 
and have had them conferred for services rendered. They are 
virtually relieved from all taxes, duties, or calls of service. Their 
estates always lie near the " khalsa,'' or royal towns, which they 
are bound to protect, and which is in fact but looking after their 



NoTlk-Wesi Fronlier of India. J I9 

own property. They nre not required to accompany ihe prince 
inlq the tield. 

3d. — The lands held by ihe religious orders are either given in 
" dhurum " or *' sudawiirt," ihat is, for purposes of charity or as 
a mark of favour. In the former instance they are not resumuble, 
but can in the latter be reciilied at pleasure. These lands in no 
way conlribnle to the inaiiilenance of the stale. 

The Kaja of Joodpoor derives no revenue from lands circum- 
stanced as I have above described, but he retains a certain degree 
of supremacy over them, and brings all offenders to justice. The 
chiefs themselves have puwer of life and death on their estates, 
but it is a right which they do not exercise. Petty delinquencies 
are sometimes punished by them, but summary justice is often 
exercised on an individual caught in a deed. 

Among the nobles of Joodpoor, several possess, by right of 
inheritance, the privilege of advising the prince in difficulty; 
these are at the head of the great Rlialore families, and are 
Called " Shumyets " or " Oomtas " of the kingdom. They are 
the chiefs of Pokrun and Awoli, Neembaj. Keean, Assobe, and 
Keeasir, or the heads of llie Chumpawut, Oodawut, Meerleea, 
Koompawut, and Kurnote tribes. 

The history of the nation is interwoven with lhat of these men; 
and the jealous eye with which Ihey view their relative rank and 
the slightest infringement on their privileges, whether it be in 
points of importance or in the seats assigned to them at court, 
has been a fruitful source of diflerence. Lives have been sacri- 
6ced for the distinction of being seated on the right or left of the 
taja ; and a chief of rank will nut visit the court when another of 
Ilia tribe is present to fill the family seat. These distinctions 
are still cherished by the chiefs of Marwar, \tith all the soul 
that actuated their heroic ancestors, but they are no longer asso- 
ciated with temporal authority in the state, for Man Sing receives 
the opinim)s of those most qualified to advise him, without refer- 
ence to rank or right. 

It is difficult to ti\ the portion of territory possessed by Ihe 
chiefs of Joodpoor, but it is very considerable, and yields, it is 
said, a greater revenue than that of the state. At present, the 
chiefs are on friendly terms with each other, but this cessation of 
hoatitity arises from the iron hand of power. Man Sing, on his 
restoration, did not spare tliose who had been instrumental in con* 
fining bim, many of whom had profited by that opportunity, and 
amassed riches. He seized the ministers of his son, stripped them 
of their wealth, butchered the most powerful nobles, and banished 
numbers from his kiugdoni. The cliief of Neembaj. in particu- 
lar, drew down his vengeance, but he had been one of the principal 



I 
I 



ICO Description of the Countries on the 

advisers of the young prince. But prudence and policy required 
that these men should not be driven to despair, and he has lately 
reinstated most of the individuals. He, however, has seized 
lands from many of the younger branches, which has rendered 
him exceedingly unpopular with the Rajpoots. The raja gives 
out that these seizures are not to be retained as crown property, 
and by such measures he may hope to secure peace by holding 
out something in prospect to them. 

Vigorous measures must ever be required in a Rajpoot country, 
where there are so many separate interests. The Rhatores of 
Joodpoor do not conceal their chagrin at measures so prejudicial 
towards them, and attribute their manifold disasters to the priests, 
or ** Gooroos," who have secured such an influence over the minds 
of their ruler. Such invectives are to be received with caution, 
coming as they do from men who are smarting under despotism. 
That these priests have advanced their worldly ends by their inti- 
macy with the raja, is evident, from the lands which he has 
bestowed upon them, but they must be men of rectitude and 
probity. A discontented or exiled chief will never approach the 
capital, even if invited to return, without a pledge of safety from 
them, and which, when given, has never been violated. 

Man Sing insists on every chief who succeeds to his estate 
placing at his command a handsome '' nuzr," or present; in re- 
turn for investiture he claims also, at different periods, sums of 
money, to defray the exigencies of the state in the military de- 
partment. If such demands are not complied with, he possesses 
himself of towns and villages, till the chief is brought to a sense 
of his duty. 

The Raja of Joodpoor had, it must be confessed, a nice part 
to act, with regard to his nobles ; his country had been long a 
troubled mass of intrigue, subject to the fury of the dissolute 
soldiery of Ameer Khan, whose greater influence over the fortunes 
of Marwar had led them to disregard the authority of their prince. 
The ascendency of the raja is now flrmly established ; and 
those who were ever ready to doubt and question his com- 
mands, now submit when called on, and hope for a restitution of 
lands when sequestrated by petitions, presents, intreaties and 
bribes, instead of trusting to the sword. 

The subjection of the chiefs is complete, and Man Sing com- 
pels all of them to keep up the full complement of troops for 
which they have received their lands, which is advantageous to the 
state, and likewise calculated to cripple the resources of a turbu- 
lent race of men. 

I shall now proceed to say something on the population of 
Joodpoor generally. There is a sameness in the inhabitants of 



North-fFest FronUer vf India. 121 

ihe stales of Rajpootana, and I might Iraiiscribe much of what I 
h«vc given in ihe preceding pages on Jnysulmeer, 

The Banians in Jootlpuor have great influence, in particular 
the " Singwees ;" two men, Foujraj and I'utlihraj.are the ministers ; 
another individual of ihe same tribe conducta the titl'airs of the 
stale with foreign powers, and one of them is even commander of 
the forces. No portion of the army ever lakes the field without 
a Banian at its head ; viho, paradoxical enough, is the com- 
mander, but tights not. He is armed with spear, sword, and 
shield, but his religion forbids him to shed the blood of any thing 
livin^f and his province is to order and encourage the soldiers, 
combined with the settlement and adjustment of the expenses, — a 
sjtstem fraught with absurdity. Iliad an opportunity of seeing a 
detachment so situated, in pursuit of a body of Kliosas, who had 
entered Joodpoor for the purposes of plunder. 

The Rajpoots compose the bulk of the population, and, besides 
those of the Rhatore tribe, there are about teti thousand of the 
Bhattees, the race predominating in Jaysulmeer. Lakaphoolanee, 
one of tlie ancient heroes of Rajpootana, is always described in 
Marwar as a Dhatlee. 

The character of the Rajpoot is well known, — proud, haughty, 
Tindictive, tyrannical, dissolute, indolent, and inattentive to busi- 
ness, not from want of capacity, but generally from intoxication. 
A Rajpoot state contains within itself, by the very construction of 
Ifae government, the seeds of its destruction in the constant sub- 
division of the lands. This partition is a source of never-ceasing 
dispute. Instances daily occur of villages and districts lying waste 
and depopulated, for the feuds of the chiefs are felt by the body 
of the people. 

Next to the Rajpoots in number are the Jhats, a tawny and 
powerful race of men, originally from Beecaneer and the countries 
westward of Delhi. They are said to have bound themselves to 
be the subjects of the Rajpoots, to whom, in common with others, 
they render a portion of the produce of the land. They are known 
in ihe country by the name of " Choudry," or " Zumeendar," and 
are an industrious race of men. There is one sect of them de- 
letring notice — the Vishnuvee Jhats, or those who strictly adhere 
lo tlie tenets of Vishnoo. These are from the neighbouring state 
of Beecaneer, and have many peculiarities: they neither take the 
lives of animals themselves, nor allow of its being done in their 
oeighbouihood ; they do not cut or lop the trees of their fields, in 
particular the "kejra," which lliey regard with especial care; nor 
do they destroy anything in the creation which it lies in their power 
to preserve. This creed is but novel in the country, and sprung 
up about four hundred and fifty years since, but its votaries have 
contrived lo secure advantages from the slate in reward for acts 



IQ.2 Description of the Counfries on the 

of general benevolence. The V ishnuvee J hats bury their dead, 
and have at their marriages a mixture of Mahommedan and Hindoo 
practices. 

There is another tribe prevalent in Marwar, known by the name 
of '* S^rgurra," whose employment consists in contributing to the 
noise which is so grateful to the Hindoo ear at marriages and 
ceremonies. They blow horns on such occasions ; and when the 
Hindoo demigod, Kamchunder, is wrapt in sleep, and prevents^ 
by the withdrawal of his countenance, the nuptial ceremonies, the 
** Sergurras" are employed in agricultural pursuits. At all times 
they are bound to show the road to travellers, but are neither of 
the Bheel family nor of the most degraded orders of Hindoos. I 
have often had occasion to mark the shrewd intelligence of this 
race of men. 

Among the hills which separate Joodpoor from Oodeepoor, 
there is a race of people called Mair, or Menah. They can neither 
be classed among the Hindoo nor Mahommedan faith; they have 
most lax principles of religion ; they eat cows' flesh, and yet worship 
the Hindoo deities; and have been addicted, from time immemorial, 
to predatory habits, for which their mountains gave them facilities. 

in one respect they are like the Jews, a younger brother taking 
to himself the wife of an elder on his decease, though he may be 
already married. These people extend from the mountains of 
Aboo to Jeypoor. 

The mercantile classes of Marwar are found in most of the 
great cities in India. There are settlements of them at Nagpoor 
and Aurungabad, also Poona, Bombay, &c. ; nor do they betake 
themselves to these places that they may vend with advantage the 
products of their own country, but that they may advance their 
own interests, and procure a sufficiency to return and marry, 
which is their great object in life. 

Braniins are not numerous in Joodpoor; their place is supplied 
by Charuns and Bhats. 

The Mahommedan population is scanty, considering the vicinitj 
of Marwar to Delhi, the seat of their once mighty empire. There 
are a few Mahomniedans in some of the towns, but I have not 
seen any place in the country which exclusively belonged to them, 
and believe this portion of the population to be nearly confined to 
th« mercenaries who compose the raja*s army. 

'I'lu'. nuiives of Marwar have a national uniformity to charac- 
toii/e iheni ns one poofile in tiie party-coloured turbans which 
ihry wrar. From the highest to the lowest this distinction pre- 
vuiU, those of the former beinsr onlv more solicitous as to the 
*8S of the colours with which thev surround their brows, 
custom IS believed to have had its origin in the time of the 
Dvlhi sovereignsi and by their desire. 



bii|(htnei 
4'hiM cusi 



I 



North-ffed Frontier of {ndia. 1«3 

If the standard of a countrv's wealth be estimated by the dif- 
lerent kinds of grain wliicli it produces, Marwar would stand con- 
tpicuous ; it (fields wheat, barley, gram, bajree, juwuree, niukkye, 
moong, and oiiit. In the northern parts they sow wheat and 
birley in llieaame field, and also barley wiUi gram; the former is 
called *■ gooju," tlie latter " baijiir," but neither of them ure es- 
teemed eigual to wtieat »a food; ihey are cheaper. Moong and 
uiul always grow together. As a country removed from tlie intlu- 
ence of running streams, there is certaiidy no part of India 
Dioie productive, nor wliere the crops are so generally good as 
Marwur. 

Joodpoor is not that arid and sterile soil which it has been re- 
presented ; ihe country is intersected iu almost every portion, 
paiticularly in the parts eastward of the capital, by rivers, or what 
ihould be more properly called torrents, which are dry in the fair 
reason, but run with violence in the rains. These unite in one 
large trunk, which has received the name of Loouee, or the bait 
River. It has its rise in the mountains of Ajmere, close on nvera 
thai riiD In an opposite direction from itself and fall into the Bay 
of Bengal : It mtersects the territories of Joodpoor In a diagonal 
diiectioii. and enters die Unnn of Cutch eastward of Parknr. The 
column of water which Hows dirough the channel of this river in 
die rainy season is great, and it saturates its own banks and those 
of ila tributary streams so eft'ectually, that water is to be found 
tliiougboot the year close to the surface. It is drawn lo irrigate 
»tl fields of wheat, which extend without intermissiun from 
Ajmere to the Kunii. 

'Hie process of irrigation appears lo me judicious, and less la- 
borious than in other countries which have come under my notice. 
Wiierii generally raified by the Persian wheel, which is of the rudest 
mumfactiire, but has, nevertheless, decided advantages over the 
leaibern bag, not the least of which is the saving of labour. It is 
distributed over the fields by aqueducts of earth, which sometimes 
exteifl for a mile in length, and are constructed with care and due 
tUeation to the level of the country. The wheat is sown after the 
raiuy season has terminated, and is reaj)ed in March. It does not 
require more than six waterings to bring it to maturity, but these 
■re most copious, for a pair of oxen will only saturate a beega of 
liad, which is twenty fathoms S'juiire, in twenty-four hours, and 
the tielda are surrounded by dykes to prevent its egress. To the 
Loouee the country is indebted for itie rich crops proiluced by 
ilicse means. That river is the most remarkable feature in 
lite Juudpour dominions. The soil of Murwar is not, like ilia 
cuuntiies eastward, well adHpltil to the culture uf opium, and 
were it more so than it is, the climate is not favourable for die 
extraction of that diiig. The poppy is nevertheless reared in the 



124 Description of the Countries on the 

eastern parts of Joodpoor, in the district called Godvvar, and under 
the hills which separate it from Marwar. It is of an inferior de- 
scription, and therefore sold in its raw state, or with the poppies 
dried^ by the name of *' tijaru." It is to be had at a low price, 
and being mixed with water, yields an intoxicating liquor, the 
facilities for procuring which demoralize and debauch the lower 
orders of society. 1 he Marwarees are all opium eaters, and the 
effects of the deleterious stimulant are visible in the inflamed eyes 
and premature old age of most of the inhabitants. Tobacco is 
produced in some parts of Marwar, but not in sufficient abundance 
to supersede the necessity of importation from Guzerat. There is 
great abundance of salt in Joodpoor, both at Sambre Lake and 
Punchpuddur. 

The former town borders on the Jeypoor territory, and half of 
it belongs to it ; Punchpuddur is on the Loonee^ towards Cutch. 
The mode of extracting the salt at the latter place differs from the 
common process of evaporation : pits of about one hundred and 
twenty feet by forty, and about ten deep, are dug in the saline 
soil, and a jungle shrub, called '^ murrooree,'' is then thrown in 
upon the water which exudes from the soil. This assists the 
crystallization and converts the water, in the course of two years, 
into a mass of salt, sometimes from four to five feet deep.* 

The commerce of Marwar is extensive ; its great emporium is 
Pallee, about forty miles south-east of the capital. It is the entrepdt 
between the western coast and Upper India — the channel by which 
the Malwa opium is exported to China and western Asia, and 
where the productions of nearly every country of commercial note 
in the world are collected. Merchants are to be found at it from 
all places of importance in India, and it carries on traffic with 
the countries westward of the Indus. The goods of Europe, 
packed in tin boxes, are brought to it by Guzerat, and generally 
landed at the bunders of Bhownuggur and Bombay, and sent 
inland on camels. Chintz, to the value of ten lacs of rupees yearly, 
are said to reach Pallee. The chief trade of the place consists in 
opium, and, for the last six years, the exports have never been 
less than fifteen hundred camel-loads, and more frequently two 
thousand. A camel carries ten maunds of forty seers, and the 
Pallee maund exceeds that of Bombay, which would give an 
annual export of from twenty to twenty-four thousand maunds. 
Till within these few months, opium was a contraband article 
at Pallee, but there was never any scarcity of it in the market 
Since the road has been thrown open to it, on the payment 
of high duties, opium has decreased in value about a third; 

* An account of the Ralt-works of Punchpuddur has been published by Lieutemnt 
Buruef, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 



North-Went Frontier of India. 125 

it is sent by laiiil to Kuracliee bunder in Siiide llirotigli Jay- 
sulmeer, a distance of about IJve hundred miles, from wliicli tt 
is stiipped for Demaun, auil hus u voyage of greater leiiglh by sea. 
llie expeu^ej of sucli a Journey are very conUderable ; the Rajas 
of Juodpoor, Jaysulnicer, and the Ameers of Siude, not only 
demand exorbitant duties for granting it a passage tiiruugh llieir 
territories, but some of the minor chiefs also claim llieir tax : so 
excessive are the burdens levied on opium, that the merchants of 
?«)le€ generally consign the article for transport to men of the 
Gr»t opulence, who bind tbemseUes, on llie receipt of three hun- 
dred rupees for each camel-load, to deliver it safe at Demaun, 
uninjured by weather, plunder, or any other cause. Considering 
the inhospitable country ibiough which the route lies before it can 
i«ach iJie banks of the Indus, and the great care which opium 
lequircfl, the payment is not exorbitant. The Joodpoor goverii- 
racDt alone demands fifty rupees on every camel-load. 

Besides ihe transit of goods to other countries, Marwar exports 
its own wheat in great quantities to .Ajmere, Beecaneer, Stc., 
ffbere it is esteemed for its whiteness and superior i|uality. It has 
ilso most extensive dealings in salt, which is sometimes sent to 
B«Dgal, and is in general demand in all the upper parts of India, 
By the return camels from Sinde, Marwar receives the produce of 
ihat country, — rice, assafcetida, sulphur, &c, "; from Lahore it has 
the shawls of Cashmere ; from the Delhi and Jeypoor territories it 
has inetalH, cloths of wool and cotton, also sugar, l-'roin Cutch, 
by th« seaport of Maiidivee, it receives most extensive imports — 
the spices, cocoa nuts, &c. of Malabai 3 the staple of Arabia in 
great quantities — dates and dried fruits, with many other articles ; 
it receives ivory from the eastern coast of Africa. 

Marwar, as may be seen, owes much of its wealth to tlie transit 
of goods to other countries ; and what spealis u ell for its ruler, this 
tradic lias been only turned into its present channel within the 
bit sixty years. In that time Pallee has risen on the ashes of 
many once nourishing towns to the eastward of it, such as Itullajn, 
Stc, the routes by which are nearly forsaken, liven now there 
arc no merchants of opulence actually resident at Pallee; their 
agents however reside in it, they themselves preferring the comforts 
of llie larger cities. 

The approach of the British government on Ajmere will pro- 
bably be attended with disastrous consequences to Pallee and 
Matwar generally. By tlie mildness of the Company's govern- 
ment, and the increasing security of property, Ajmere has grown 
up into a beautiful and flourishing city of twenly-tive thousand 
inliabitants, from the neglected and desolate state in which it was 
received from the Mahratlas in I81S. Many merchants, of the 
first consequence in Marwar, have now settled in it, as tbey can 



126 Description of the Countries on the 

there manage their affairs without fear of fine or punishment. 
Ajmere, too, has attractions of a high order to the Mahommedan 
and Hindoo; for, besides being the capital of a '<soobu " of Delhi, 
it has within its walls the tomb of one of the most celebrated 
saints in Mahommedan India, and but six miles from its gates is 
the famous town of Pooshkur, or Pokur, where, situated on the 
margin of a lake, is the only temple dedicated to Brahma, or 
the Creator, in the Hindoo world. An ablution in its waters 
19 believed not only to wash away the sins of the Hindoo, 
but those of the family he represents. To an unsettled people, 
like the mercantile classes of Marwar, great are the inducements 
to fix themselves in Ajmere ; and that city in time, therefore, bids 
fair to be an ornament to the British rule in India — streets, squares, 
and bazars rise in it daily, and a general uniformity of plan has been 
maintained.'^ The devout Hindoo delights to expend his wealth on 
the temples and town of Pokur. This place is now both flourish- 
ing and populous, and, besides its numerous temples, there is more 
satisfactory proof of improvement in an uniform bazar, which 
has been lately finished by its Brahmins at the suggestion of the 
government, where a great and annual fair has been established, 
at which most extensive sales and purchases are made. 

The resources of Joodpoor are considerable, even with the in- 
different management of its officers, the Banians. The " khalsa," 
or royal lands, yield an annual revenue of thirty-seven lacs of 
rupees. Of this, ten lacs are allowed to support the ladies of the 
raja : a similar sum is also set aside for charitable purposes, such 
as supporting the J ogees and Brahmins, and kecpmg up '* sada- 
wurts," or daily distributions of alms at different towns in his ter- 
ritory ; and the prince only retains about fifteen lacs for his own 
expenditure, though he has it in his power, it may be seen, to more 
than double that sum. A very eligible mode is followed in settling 
matters of expense, by assigning the revenues of different villages 
to certain fixed purposes : some, for instance, are appropriated to 
furnish milk for the household — others to the maintenance of the 
stud — some, again, to that of the camels ; which must simplify the 
accounts of a government. The assessment in the different towns 
varies considerably. It is always made in kind. On the monsoon 
crops it ranges from one-third to one-eighth of the net produce, 
according to the distance of the place from the capital. On the 
frontiers, the amount is nearly nominal. The irrigated crops arc 
more favoured, from the greater labour required in rearing them, 
and seldom pay more than one-seventh of the harvest. The duties 



* The Honourable II. Cavendijih, when Political Aj^ent at Ajtnere, took great 
interest in beaut it) in ;^ that city. 1 have heie io acknowledge his good ofiKces in 
enabling roe to procure i>ome of the ioformation recorded in thu paper. 




NorSi-ffea Frmtier o/ India, 127 

on commerce supply a great portion of the revenue of Joodpoor. 
The town of Pallee a)one yields, it is said, lialf a lac of rupees 
monthly. Like other native governments, these revenues are farmed 
chiefly to banians, who are continually changed according to the 
will of those in power at the capital. This system lias many Hi-) 
advantages, for these merchauls, while in power, lose no oppor- 
tunity of amassing wealth. The government is not ignorant of the 
fact, for the " hakims " (as the banians of districts are called) are 
constantly summoned to Joodpoor, and compelled, by confinement 
and punishment, to yield up their ill-gotlen gains j but the subject 
participates nought in these spoils, and the banian, on recovering 
from his tribulalion, is once more called to the court, honoured 
with a turban, and sent to some other district, where the same 
game b, in due course, repeated. The influence which these men 
possess is great : they manage the affairs of the raja, as well as 
of every chief, 

Marwar is deservedly celebrated for its camels, to which it owes 
much of its rise in the scale of commerce among the surrounding 
people. There is no general mart for these animals in any one 
part of the country, but a few of (hem may be purchased at every 
village, from the rehbarees, or shepherds — llie climate and pro- 
ductions of the country favouring their growth. The Marwar 
camel is of a brownish black colour, and capable of enduring 
great l^tigue. They may be purchased at from lifty to sixty rupees 
a head, but those used as riding camels, or for carrying expresses, 
cost a greater sum. The hire of a camel for a hundred coss, or 
two hundred miles, is only eight rupees. Excepting the articles 
of salt and cocoa-nuts, the whole trade of Marwar is carried on by 
means of camels, many of the roads not admitting of the use of 
carts with convenience. The god of the Rhatores and of the Mar- 
waree shepherds is named Paboo: he has his celebrity, in their 
eyes, from having introduced the camel into Marwar. This deified 
personage is said lo have been formerly a Itajpoot, and is always 
represented by an equestrian image. 

The bullocks of Marwar are held in high estimation on the 
western side of India. Those of Nagore, a town between ^Jmere 
atid Beecaneer, are the most celebrated. The cattle of Sachore 
are also superior. Pack bullocks are procurable without number. 
Xhej are kept chiefly for tlie purposes of traffic between Cutch 
and Marwar, and for bringing the saltof Punchpuddur and Sambre 
tu the market. Droves of some thousands may be seen passing 
tbe roads daily. The owners of these are the Cliarniis, w'ho, 
while they derive protection from the religious order to which 
lliey belong, have additional respect and favour !>hown when of 
the mercantile class, which is held as honourable among them. 
Tbese men have lighter duties levied from them, and are often 



128 Description of the Countries on the 

trusted with goods of great value. In their protection they will 
maim themselves, and even sacrifice their lives. They lead a 
wandering life, and always travel with their families and property. 
Asses are used in Marwar for the transport of salt. Goats and 
sheep are numerous, and furnish food of the best quality. The 
wool is not, however, prized as in the neighbouring countries of 
Beecaneer and Jaysulmeer. Pigs are reared in great numbers by 
the lower orders^ but have more the appearance of the wild thaa 
the domestic animal. 

The horses of Marwar did not strike me as good ; the best 
are those of a cross breed with the Kattywar animal. The 
open nature of the country of Joodpoor frees it from beasts of 
prey ; the tiger is confined to the mountains, but the less rapacious 
animals prowl over its plains. 

Marwar contains within its limits about five thousand towns 
and villages. There are few large towns ; but many, indeed 
most, of the villages, particularly those upon the Loonee and its 
tributary streams, are large and well peopled, and contain from five 
hundred to a thousand houses. Joodpoor is divided into twenty- 
four districts, which are generally named from the most considerable 
town in each ; the boundaries of these are ill defined. The prin- 
cipal ones are Nagore and Meerta, north of the capital, and 
Sojut, God war, and Jallore to the south. 

Joodpoor, the capital, is a walled city, built in a hollow, sur- 
rounded by rocky eminences, on which are three forts. The 
largest of these contains the palace of the raja, which is a most 
extensive edifice, and visible from afar. I have made very careful 
inquiry as to its population^ and am persuaded that I do not 
overrate it at sixty thousand souls. 

Pallee stands next in note to the capital, and has about fifty 
thousand people. It is an open town situated in a low and 
swampy plain, owing its wealth to its commerce. It was in former 
times a place of note in Marwar, and the residence of the 
Pallewa liiahmins, who first invited the Rhatore Rajpoots to 
settle in the country. It fell into a slate of decay from Ma- 
honmiedan oppression ; from this it was rescued by an enter- 
prising Hanian, about sixty years since, who prevailed on the 
merchants of the neighbouring countries to remove to it. About 
a thousand mercenaries are retained for its protection, as it is, next 
to the capital, the most important town in Joodpoor. 

Nagore, on the north-east, is a place of some extent, and famous 
for its manufactures in brass and iron. It is a walled town with a 
substantial fort within the city, and has a population of about forty 
thousand souls. 

Meerta has been also a considerable place, but is now in a state 
of ruin. It has about twenty thousand people^ and is known for its 




chintz clolha, whicli are a coarse manufacture. There is a mosque 
at it, built by Amuiizebe. 

Next in importance to these places are Sambre, Pokruit, 
Peepar, Sojut, Jaitarun, Parbiisir, Deedwana, Fullodee, VVal- 
lotra, and Kyepoor, all of a considerable size, and each having a 
population of about live thousand. 

There are few forts or strongholds in Joodpoor, from the absence 
of hills, and scarcely any of the smaller towns are walled. Jallore 
and See wan nu are the most celebrated ; both are hill forts ^ the 
former has about fifteen thousand people, and the fortification on 
the hill over it is the strongest place in Marwar. It is the state 
prison of the rajas of Joodpoor, where the turbulent characters or 
rebels of the state are conhned ; and it has been often the abode 
of ibe younger relatives of the reigning prince. The present raja, 
Man Sing, was besieged in Jallore for three years; ami his suc- 
cess in warding off his enemies for so long a period was attributed 
to s Jogee, which is said to have induced his prepossession for 
that class of men, 

Seewannu u built on a precipitous rock, about two hundred 
tnd Afty feet high, in a valley surrounded by hills. A detachment 
of two hundred men is generally kept here, for it is a place of 
some importance, and narrowly watched by the government. 
The works of the fort are inferior, but it has abundance of water. 
The town lies south of the fort, tlie only entrance to which leads 
through it. 

Seewannu and Jallore are at the head of districts, as are all 
places mentioned in this paragraph, except Peepar and Wallotra. 
Sochore is the most southern portion of the Joodpoor dominions ; 
but that district, and those in its vicinity, have never recovered the 
eflfects of the severe famine of 1813, which has left the country 
around thinly peopled and poorly cultivated, 

Alex. Blrnes. 



VI, — Geographical Memoir of Melville Island and Port Ea- 

tintjion, on the Cobmrg Peninsula, Northern Australia ; with 

somf obxervaiinni on the Settlements which have been established 

on the North Coast of New Holland. Accompanied by a Map 

of Melville and Bathurst Islands, and a Plan of Port Esaington, 

Communicated by Major Campbell. 67th Foot, formerly Com- 

maiidantat Melville Island, Head 12th and 20th May, 1834. 

Very little correct local information on a most interesting part of 

tlie northern coast of New Holland and its neighbouring islands 

lias yet been laid before the public, arising probably from the little 

atleiition that lias hitherto been paid to this distant and not 

ihorougbly explored portion of our British dominions, as well as 

VOL. IV. K 



130 Memoir of Mchille Island and Port Essington, 

from the few oppoitiinities that navigators or others have had of 
minutely examining its shores or interior. Many exaggerated^ 
contradictory, and erroneous accounts have thus from time to time 
appeared, conveying but confused and unsatisfactory intelligence 
respecting that part of the Mrorld. And I have been induced, there- 
fore, at the request of several friends interested in geographical 
science, to furnish what information on the subject I can, resulting 
from a residence of two years on this coast. 

Experimented Settlements, ^^^Hvio settlements were formed on 
tlie north coast of New Holland between 1824 and 1828, and 
subsequently abandoned. One of them was placed in Apsley 
i) trait, in 18£4, the other in Raffles Bay, in 1827 ; and the inten- 
tion of their formation, with the causes which led to their being 
ultimately abandoned, being either little known or misunderstood, 
I shall first explain these points. 

Previous to 1824, some masters of small trading vessels, who 
had been carrying on a traffic with the islands in the Indian Archi- 
pelago, found the trade they had thus embarked in of a de- 
scription that promised a profitable market for European goods ; 
and they also observed that several articles of traffic amongst 
these islands were obtained on the northern coast of New Holland, 
** such as Mdie la mer or tripang, and pearl and tortoise-shell." 
They therefore naturally concluded that a British settlement on 
that coast might materially facilitate a commercial intercourse, not 
only with the inhabitants of the numerous islands in the Indian 
Archipelago, but also with the Chinese ; and these observations, on 
l^eing represented, meeting with a favourable consideration in the 
Colonial Department at home, and Government evincing an anxious 
desire to extend our trade in the Indian Seas, arrangements were 
soon afterwards entered into for carrying the views founded on 
them into effect. 

Captain Bremer, C.B., (then commanding H. M. S. Tamar, 
and about to proceed from England to New South Wales 
on his way to India,) received instructions to take charge of 
an expedition which would be fitted out at Sydney, to proceed 
with it to the north coast of New Holland, and to establish a 
settlement on such part of that coast as he found would be most 
likely to answer the intentions of Government. The settlement 
established on Melville Island was the result, of the formation of 
which I shall now give a short account. 

The materials being prepared at Sydney, Captain Bremer 
sailed from Port Jackson on the 24th August, 1824, having under 
his command (besides his own ship) two vessels, in which were 
embarked two officers and fifty soldiers of the third regiment, a 
surgeon, two gentlemen pf the Cotnmissariat Department, and 
forty-five convicts, with cattle and various stores. The expedition 
proceeded by the inner passage, through Torres' Strait, and 




Memuir of Melville hUmd and Port Esstngfan. 131 

crossing the Gulf of Carpentaria on the SOtli Septenibtr readied 
Port E*tiiigton, where ihej cacif to anchor. 'I'hey remained 
three daji, but after searcliing in severnl direcliuiis fur water, and 
being unable to discover any, except by digging holes in tlie sand 
at Puitii Record,* tlii« circumalauce induced Cuptaiii Uix-uier to 
look for B more convenient pluce more to the westwanl. On the 
morning of the S4th ijepletuber, accordingly, Melville island was 
seen fiom the mukt-heHd, bearing S.VV., and at seven p.m. the 
expedition anchored outside of the reef or shoal culled Mcnnuid 
Slioal which extends westward from Cape Van Diemen. The 
;Utb wait occupied by the expedition in threading its way ihruugli 
litis intricate and extensive reef, and by halt-past six in the even- 
ing, having cleared it, they anchored in seven fathoniH water, of} 
Balhuisl hiand. At daylight on the Stith they weighed and stood 
for the entrance between Melville and Balliurst Islaiuls into 
Apslcy Strait, and in the ufternooii they anchored otT Liixmoore 
Head in tifleen fathoms. (Luxmoore Head is a |>rumonlory of 
Melville Island, within the entrance of Apsley Strait.) The re- 
mainder of the afilh, the 27lh, the 28th, and 29th, were occupied 
in searching for water, but none but what was brackiah was found 
nnti) late on the 2f>th, when a small stream was met with by 
Captain Uremer : this decided him to establish the new settlement 
ill Apsley Strait, on tlie Melville Island side. The most eligible 
■poi (bat presented itself was six miles higher up than Luxmoore 
Head i and on the 30th September the soldiers and convicts were 
landed, and the operation of clearing away ground on which to 
erect buildings was immediately commenced. 

Tlie spot fixed upon by Captain Bremer for the settlement was 
named by him Point liarlow, in compliment to Captain liarlow, 
3nl Regiment, who was appointed Commandant ; a low point of 
land lo the N.W, of it was called Garden Point ; and these two 
points formed the extremities of a small bay, which became tlie 
andiorage, and was named King's Cove. The beach around it, 
as well as to the S.K. of the intended settlement, was low, muddy, 
and lined with mangroves, and the higher grounds were covered 
wilh a dense forest. 

B> (be 2Ut October, through the united efforts of the sailors, 
aoltlters, and convicts, the settlement was in a great slate of for- 
wardness: and this being the anniversary of the battle of Trafalgar, 
Captain Urenier landed some guns and mounted them on the lurt, 
whicli was now nearly completed; a royal salute was tired ; and 
besides the names already meniiuned, others were given. That 
part of Apsley Strait between Harris Island and Luxmoore Head 
was named I'ort Cockbuni, and the work was called l''ort Diindas. 

nace of bsviii)- buried n buttlu on 
in Bceanut of Lis (irocvcdingt on iBudiog ul }*aif Kmanltm, 



I 
I 



132 



M,'n 



r ofMAvlih. hland ami Porl Esslnghn. 



On the ISlh November, the fort, wharf, soldiers' huts, officers' 
houses, and commissariat store, being completed, also an excel- 
lent well thirty feet deep mid six in diameter, and the pro- 
visions all landed. Captain Bremer took his departure for India, 
leaving an officer and thirty marines to assist in the protec- 
tion of the settlement. The establishment at this time was as 
follows: Captain Bailow and Lieutenant Everard, 3rd Regiment; 
Lieutenant Williamson, Royal Marines; Assistant-Surgeon Turner, 
Royal Artillery; Mr. Miller, Commissariat Department; Mr. 
Tollemache, Commissariat Storekeeper; thirty soldiers of the 
Koyal Marines; fifty of 3rd Regiment; and forty-five convicts. 
One small vessel of about sixty tons (the Lady Nelson) was also 
left for the purpose of being employed in procuring supplies from 
the island of Timor. 

The first object — viz, clearing away a small space of ground 
to eualite the settlers to erect huts for shelter, stores, and an hos- 
pital, in a country thickly wooded, surrounded by mangrove 
swamps, and under a burning sun — re(]uire<) no ordinary exertion ; 
but by the perseverance of the military and prisoners, aided by 
tile crew of the Tamar frigate, the fort was finished, a temporary 
wharf formed, and huts sufficient for shelter were constructed, in 
seventy-four days ; subsequent to which and the departure of the 
Tamar, the convicts (forty-five in number) were the only labourers 
that could be employed in clearing away and bringing the ground 
into a state of cultivation, every other individual having abundant 
occupation to make himself by any means comfortable and secure. 
As llie hills were uiiavuidably erected doss to the standing limber, 
the natives, who constantly hovered through the forest, were ex- 
tremely troublesome, frequently throwing their spears into the 
huts and hospital; scurvy and ague also soon appeared, and, di- 
minishing the number of workmen, retarded exceedingly the ope- 
ration of clearing ; and the difficulties experienced in communi- 
cating with Sydliey occasioned other drawbacks, as will in the 
sequel appear. 

From the great distance between Melville Island and Sydney, 
and the total want of any direct intercourse, very little was known 
about the settlement even in July, 1826. Towards the end of 
1823, one aet of despatches reached Sydney, which had been sent 
via fiatavia or India; and these did not convey a very favourable 
report of the new settlement, the Commandant having experienced 
many unexpected difficulties, the principal of which were, want 
of fresh provisions and vegetables ; inadequate materials for carry- 
ing on field labour; scurvy, ayd a great deal of sickness ; several 
deaths which had taken place; the loss of the Lady Nelson, 
which was sent for supplies to the island of Timor, in rebniary, 
1826, and never afterwards heard of; and also of a schooner called 





Memoir of Mehille Island aiwl Port Essinglon. 133 

the Stedcomb, which the Commandnnt had engaged, in place of 
the Ladv Nelson, to procure bufl'alos from Coupaiig Timor, aud 
which sailed from Melville island in February, 182(>, and never 
returned, having been taken by pirate* off the east end of Timor. 
The settlement was thus left without fresh meat or vegetables, 
which latter could not be produced in suflicient quantity; and 
tcurvy Urns broke out, and raged for inauy mouths in a very alarm- 
ing degree. Supplies of flour, pickles, and preserved meats were 
afterwards sent from Sydney, in the ship Sir Philip Dundas which 
readied Melville Island in the beginning of 1820; and another 
vessel (ihe Mermaid cutler), despatched from Sydney in March 
IttSO, arrived at the settlement on the 5th August. These delays 
and lasses occasioned not only great iuipedinienls to the improve- 
ment of the seltlemeul, but left the Oovernor of New South 
VValea in much anxiety respecting it. 

At the beginning of August, XBiG, his Excellency Lieutenant- 
General Darling, then Governor of New South Wales, was 
pleased to appoint me Commandant of Melville Island, and 
diiected me to embark on board tlie Colonial schooner Isabella, 
with a detachment of troops, some convicts, and various stores, aa 
well as live stock, and to proceed with all despatch through Torres 
Straits to relieve Captain Barlow and his detachment. Ou the 
19th August we left Port Jackson, and reached Melville Island 
on the lyth September, The officers and men who had formed 
the' settlement, and had been there about two years, were rejoiced 
to find tliat a relief had arrived for them ; tlicy gave us a discou- 
raging account of the oppressiveness of the climate, the scarcity 
of vegetables, the deficiency of fresh meat, the almost impossibility 
of procuring fish, the dreariness of the situation — (never having 
been visited by any other than the two small colonial vessels 
aUeady mentioned as sent from Sydney with supplies, by a man- 
of-war's boat, which came in for a few hours, whilst the man- 
of-war, the Slaney, remained outside the reefs, about eighteen 
miles off; and 1 believe also that H. M. ship Larne had touched 
tltt:re) — the hostihty of tliii natives, and many other mortifications 
which conveyed but a gloomy picture of the settlement. I was, 
however, fortunately not of a temperament to be cast down by 
these accounts; but on the contrary rejoiced that I had been 
placed in so novel and interesting a situation, and looked forward 
with a pleasing anticipation tliat patience, exertion, and industry 
would soon bring the settlement to answer the intenlions of Go- 
(eniinent in having formed it. 

Aa llie views of Government in wishing to establish a com- 
mercial depfit have been already mentioned, and two years' trial 
had now been given, certainly with very limited means, 1 shall here 
tlalo such observations as I made immediately after my arrival, 



134 Memoir ofMvhnUe Island and Port Essimjton. 

and introduce the substance of my first report to his Excellency 
the Governor of New South Wales. 

The number of persons landed at the settlement in 1824 
amounted to about one hundred and twenty-six ; and during the 
period of two years which elapsed before my arrival, eight soldiers 
and four convicts had died, but two of these had been drowned, 
and one died in consequence of spear-wounds received from the 
natives. 

The appearance of the military and prisoners (although their 
complexions were sallow) was that of health ; and from the state- 
ment of Dr. Turner I formed an opinion that Melville Island 
could not be called very unhealthy, and that the salubrity of the 
climate, with common precaution, was by no means inferior to 
most under the same parallel. 

The amount of population, after Captain Barlow sailed, was as 
follows : one hundred and fifteen males, fifty-four of whom were 
prisoners, and six females, besides fourteen sailors on board of 
ship. The live-stock consisted of sixteen head of horned cattle, 
twenty-three sheep and lambs, and fifty-four head of swine, (all 
kept exclusively for breeding ;) besides which, sixteen buffaloes 
for slaughter had just been landed from Timor. Of land 
cleared of timber there were fifty-two acres, three of them 
cultivated ; and ninety-five acres on which the timber was felled, 
but not cleared off. The buildings consisted of three wooden 
houses for ofiicers, one for soldiers, one for an hospital, two 
store-houses, thirteen huts for the prisoners, and seven for the 
Royal Marines. The huts were in general miserable hovels^ con- 
structed hastily and irregularly. 

In looking about the settlement, things appeared in a more 
backward state than they should have been after an occupation of 
two years ; but this was owing to the scarcity of workmen, the 
total deficiency of any draught animals, and the want of good 
mechanics. The gardens were very backward ; there not being 
any competent person to attend to them until a few weeks pre- 
vious to my arrival. The soil near the sea was very rocky and 
difficult to the spade, and on this ground a government garden 
was marked out in 1824. Melons and pumpkins grew well in it, 
and where there was any depth of soil it was found to be good, 
and all seeds planted there sprung up quickly; but what Nature 
did for them was counteracted by an incapable gardener. 

The Malays had never been seen near Melville Island, nor had 
any vessel visited it up to the present period, excepting the 
English men-of-war and government colonial store-ships already 
mentioned. 

The approach to Apsley Strait was intricate, attended with 
danger, and required much caution, in consequence of extensive 



Memoir ofMcloUk Island and Pnrt EsaingUm. I35 

reefs, strong currents, and sand- banks, wliich embarrassed its 
entraDce, and of wliich I aliuil speak mure fully in unntber place ; 
but I ihen thought it might be rendered safer by means of buwys. ■ 



Melville Island is situated between the parallels 11° 8' StV* 
and 1 1° Aff S,, and extends west and east from longitude 130° atf 
to 131* 34' H It lies off the north coast of New Holland, from 
wliich its eastern end is distant fifteen miles. The sea between 
Melville Island and the main was named Clarence Strait by 
Captain King, and is studded with small islands, rocks, and 
reefs, between which run rapid currents. It is five degrees to 
the westward of the Gulf of Carpentaria. 

The most northern and western point of Melville Island (Cape 
Van Uiemen) is three hundred and thirty miles distant from the 
island of Timor, the centre of which island bears VV.N.W. from 
It; and the Dutch seat of government at Coepang is four hundred 
miles distant. 

The extreme length of Melville Island from Cape Van Diemen 
to Cnpe Keith is seventy-live miles ; and its breadth, from Cajie 
Rftdford on the north side, to Cape Gambier on the south, is 
thirty -seven. The surface of the island is low and gently undu- 
lating, averaging from twenty to seventy feet above the sea ; but 
there are a few small elevations towards the southern side, of pro- 
bably two hundred feet height. 

Melville Island is separated from B:ilhurst island by a strait, 
nrymg from four miles to one and a half in breadll), and forty-six 
miles long. This strait is called Apsley Strait. Ilatburst Island 
is of a triangular shape, each side measuring about forty miles. 
Its surface and its productions are similar to those of Melville 
Island. The northern line of coast of Melville Island and tlie 
north-western side of Bathurst are generally low and lined with 
mangroves. The eastern, western, and south sides are more 
elevated, and sometimes abrupt, forming cliffs or clay banks. 
Both those islands are well clothed with wood, presenting one 
mass of dark green foliage, excepting at the western end of 
Bathurst island, which is sandy, and of a barren aspect, — the 
trees being scattered and stunted from exposure to the strong 
blast of the north-west monsoon. 

In October, 1827, I examined the north coast of Melville 
Island, hoping to lind some good harbours, or a more eligible 
situation for the settlement than Apsley Strait proved to be ; but 
the whole line of this coast I found lined with an almost continued 
barrier of mangroves, except a few places where there were 
abrupt banks, twenty feet high, of a red ferruginous clay ; the 
bays were all shallow, exposed to the north and nortli-wcst winds, 



* 



p 



i fell I 



130 Memoir of Metoille hland and Fori Essinglon. 

unfit for anchorage for any other ihan small crafl or boats ; an<l 
the heads of these bays lerminaled in salt-water creeks, surrounded 
by tliick bells of mangrove. I obaerved t»o tine abru|)t sand 
beaches towards the eastern end of the island ; the one extending 
from Lethbridge Bay to near Smoky Point, and the other ex- 
tending from Breiiton Bay to near Point Jahlcel; both face the 
norlli-west, and are a great resort of turtle. 

As the commanders of those vessels that visited the settlement 
during my command remarked on the great difticulties of the 
entrance into Apsley Strait, many of ihem, although several limes 
in the strait, having fretjuently touched on the rocks or shoals, 
and been sometimes, in calms, driven or drifted by currents to the 
southward of the island ; and as 1 possessed uo chart of the whole 
of Apsley Strait, or even of these islands, I determined on sur- 
veying the whole, particularly examining the southern end ot the 
Strait, which had only been once before approached by any vessel 
(that of Captain King, in 18IB) ; and 1 hoped that by tinding a 
safe entrance at that t^nd the prospects of the settlement would be 
materially improved. 

Id March, I8S7, I entered upon this survey, taking tlie basis of 
my operations from Garden Point, — the exact situation of which 
tiad been carefully fixed, in 1824, by Lieutenant Iloe, of H. M.S. 
Tamar, who also had surveyed and drawn a good chart of the 
northern end of the straits. The result of my survey, which oc- 
cupied nine days, was as follows : — From the settlement to within 
■even miles of the sea at the southern end of the straits, (a dis- 
tance of thirty miles,) the channel is safe and deep enough for any 
vessel ; but at seven miles within the entrance of the straits, cotn- 
mencing at an inlet named Medina, 1 found ilie passage intricate 
and dangerous, the channel narrow, and winding between saud- 
banks and coral reefs, which are covered at half-flood, some dry 
at low water, and others having then half a fathom vtater upon 
them. These dangers lirst appear in a circular basin (which I 
named Shoal Basin) near where Captain King anchored and 
terminated his attempt to pass tlnxjugh the straits in 1S18. The 
mouth of the strait is about three-quarters of a mile wide, having 
' seven fathoms water in mid-channel ; it opens into a wide bay, 
which at high-water appears lu be devoid of any danger, but at 
half-tide extensive sand-banks are exposed and extend almost 
entirely across and around the bay, leaving a very narrow and 
winding channel on the eastern side, varying in depth at low water 
from leu to two fathoms. This bay is three miles wide, and at 
low water there is no perceptible passage to the open sea, the 
sand-banks extending seaward as far as the eye can reach. It was 
8t the time of spring tides that I was there, and the water rose and 
fell fourteen feet ; the tide ran at the rate of dve miles an hour. 



Memoir of Melville IsUnd und Fori EtminQiun. 137 

In the chart I have named ihis ba^ Shoal Baj^ ; it is in lat. 1 1 48' 
South, and loog, ISO" 4:)' East. 

I remained two days outside of the southern entrance soiiuding, 
and endeavouring to tind a passage out to the open sea; but Uie 
sand-banks were so numerous, and the winding chaimel through 
them so narrow, with the soundings irregular, tiiat 1 was obliged 
to desist. I was moreover limited witli regard to time, and as 1 
hud neither a chart nor chronometer to assist me in making a quick 
return to die selllement round Bathurst Island, ur by the eastward 
through Clarence or Dundas Straits, round Melville labnd, as 1 
had intended, (provided 1 could have got easily out,) 1 was most 
reluctantly compelled to return, disappoinled in my hopeii. 1 
landed and examined a small low island ihat is situated in the bay 
outside of the strait : from the Hock of pelicans seen upon it I 
named it Pelican Island ; but, upon subseijuent reference to 
Captain King's chart, 1 found that it had already been designated 
one of the Buchanan Isles. 

Both Melville and Bathurst Islands, which form the strait, 
present the same unvaried and gloomy appearance throughout. 
The land is invariably low, intersected by swamps in the lowest 
parts, and the higher ground is one continued forest. The shore, 
from one end of the strait to the other, is bordered by a broad 
bell of impenetrable mangroves, and indented by numerous salt- 
water creeks, ^vhich present the appearance of rivers; the upper 
part of these creeks generally terminating in salt marshes, through 
which drain small streams of water, which is thus brackish even 
when the tide is out. Some of these creeks stretch inland seveu 
or eight miles. 

Mermaid Shoal. — During my residence on Melville Island, 1 
thrice examined the Mermaid shoal which had occasioned great 
embarrassment to vessels approaching Apsley Strait. 

This shoal extends eighteen miles in a westerly direction from 
Cape Van Diemen, and, I believe, was named by Captain King 
after the vessel he sailed in, when surveying the N. and N.W^ 
coast of Australia; and its probable boundary is laid down in 
that officer's excellent chart. Commencing from Cape Van Die- 
men, it runs out in a northerly direciion live miles ; its northern 
boundary then trends away W.S.W. nearly eighteen miles. At 
the western end there is a sand hank running S.E. and N.W., 
about seven miles long, and sometimes visible at tow water, 
which is separated from the rest of the shoal by a narrow channel, 
in which the depth of water is very variable in consequence of 
frequent overfalls of the ground ; and the tide runs very rapidly 
through it. At half flood I found the soundings vary as follows, 
viz, : 10, 7, 6, 3, 10, 4, 7, 0. 8, f), 10 fathoms. Between this 
channel and the coast, extending from Cape Van Dieineu to 



138 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 

Piper's Head, the shoal consists of clusters of coral rocks. The 
southern side projects in a S.S.W. direction from Piper*s Head^ 
entering about a mile and a half into St. Asaph^s Bay^and thence 
runs N.N.W. to within a mile of the sand-bank already mentioned. 
A shoal also runs out in a N.W. direction from Point Brace^ 
(the western point of entrance to Apsley Strait,) extending to the 
northward of the point two miles and a quarter, and to the west- 
ward five miles and a half. The outward border of this shoal 
is two miles distant from that of the Mermaid ; and if a vessel 
entering or going out of Apsley Strait keeps in mid channel, 
it will have good soundings from eight to twenty fathoms ; but 
near the shoals on each side the soundings rapidly alter ; perhaps 
in two successive heaves 6f the lead, from nine to six and three 
fathoms, thereby requiring very great caution. Further, from the 
frequently muddy colour of the water it is difficult to distinguish 
the immediate vicinity of the shoals. In boisterous weather the 
winds and currents together cause such a broken and agitated sea 
all across the channel, that it would be very dangerous for any 
ship to venture through in such weather. 

^rhe anchorage in King's Cove, although ten miles within the 
straits, is not at all times secure. The bottom is soft mud^ with 
the ground rising rapidly towards the shore, and strong currents 
sweep round the cove ; in squally weather, therefore, with the 
wind off the land, vessels are liable to drag their anchors. The 
Mermaid, Isabella schooner, and the Lady Nelson brig, did so at 
different periods. 

Reef between Cape Fleeming and Point Jahleel. — It may also 
be considered relevant, that I should mention a dangerous reef 
which lies off the eastern end of Melville Island. I presume it 
was observed by Captain King, but I am not aware that it was 
particularly remarked ; and I was ignorant of its existence until I 
found myself hard and fast upon it through the carelessness of the 
mate upon watch, as I was proceeding from Melville Island towards 
the Cobourg Peninsula in 1827. Our bearings were then as 
follows ; — 

1st. Point Jahleel bore W. by N. six miles and a half distant. 

^nd. The most distant point to the S.£., supposed Cape 
Fleeming, bore S.E. by S. four miles. 

3rd. The nearest land, named by me Point Dowset, bore 
S. J W. three miles and one quarter. 

4th. A point on the eastern side of a deep bay, (named Disaster 
Bay in my chart,) bore S.W.JW. four miles distant. 

From the appearance of broken and light coloured water, the 
reef appeared to extend between three and four miles in a crescent 
form, and in detached patches, the convex side facing the east- 
ward. 



w 



Memnir n/Mthille hland and Port Exstnglon, 139 

The inferior of Melville Island ia very difficult of acceis, ia 
con$ei|uence of alinoiit impenetrable mangrove-swamps und close 
foresi ; and in my several excursions into its interior, for the pur- 
pose of surveying and penetrating in direct lines from the coast, 
1 found the features of the country always similar. From tlie 
closeness of the trees and want of elevated spots, I could seldom 
•ee beyond three or four hundred yards, and my movements were 
ftlwars guided by compass. 

When seen from the sea the island has a pleasing nppearanco 
in consequence of its gently undulating surface and being thickly 
wooded- but when on shore its beauty vanishes, a monotonous 
succession of salt-water creeks, mangrove-swamps, and forest, 
(the trees of which are generally of the same appearance, having 
long bare trunks and very scanty foliage,) speedily surfeiting the 
most ardent admirer of the beauties of nature. 

The elevated ground sometimes runs in narrow strips and at 
others extends widely ; the slopes generally terminate in a swamp, 
but yet sometimes they have open spaces of arid flat ground at 
their base, of from fifty to a hundred acres in extent, covered only 
witb low shrubs and thin coarse grass. Here and there are also 
plains of dry mud without any vegetation. The surface of the 
elevated ground is very stony, being covered with small shining 
masses of ironstone, having a metallic lustre, as if they had been 
ejected from a furnace. The sloping sides are less stony, and the 
Hat ground is generally quite free from stone. Streams of water 
are scarce throughout the island, but the swamp water is generally 
drinkable; and by sinking wells a constant supply of excellent 
water is obtained. The swamps are generally full of long grass 
and reeds, intermixed with small trees ; and leading into these 
swamps are narrow gullies choked up with a kind of cane or ratan, 
{FlagtUatia indica, Linn.) Excursions into the interior are at- 
tended with excessive fatigue and much risk, the leading causes of 
which are the oppressive heat experienced in the close forest, where 
the air is seldom in motion; the myriads of sand-Hies which 
infest and torment the traveller whenever he stands still or rests for 
an instant, and the constant alertness demanded to guard against 
the hostile natives. 

Soil and Productions of Melville Island. — After four years' es- 
peritmce, we found the soil of Melville Island in general to be of 
an inferior quality, partaking of the character of the ironstone 
which is so generally disused over it. The subsoil, alter digging 
two feet and a half, is much betier, being a brown mould of a 
saponaceous texture. This is the character of the soil on the 
elevated ground at a little distance from the shore ; close to the 
shore it is very rocky, and the rocks are generally of a ferru- 
ginous Daturc, heavy, brittle, and splintery in the fracture ; the soil 



I 

I 



140 Memoir nf Mvleilh hland and Port Essington. 

in liglit and shallow, iutermixed witb much sand and gravel. Bor- 

deriiig on the swDinps, II is richer and more productive, but some- 

times so darli in colour (almost black) thai, by attracting the 

Jheat of tlie sun, it burns up the vegetables which it had quickly 

I iproduced. After digging a few feet below the surface, the grouud 

I u frequently fouud to be of a whitish clayey uature. There are 

[ many flat pieces of ground near the swamps which 1 tbiuk 

I capable of producing rice ; but we had neither the means nor the 

[ opportunity of trying experimenls with that grain ; and the 

I ^eeults of our trials of tbe productive qualities of the soil, gene- 

I nlly, will be foinid afterwards. 

I . The ^egetuble productions indigenous to Melville Island are 
I various and abundant, vegetation being certainly altogether very 
f luxuriant, and during the whole year there was plenty of grass for 
\ the subsistence of our cattle. The timber is in general of a use- 
F ful quality ; and although trees which are small in the stem pre- 
duintnale, yet there are many of considerable dimenijions and 
applicable to house-bulldiug, furniture, sihip and boat budding, 
and to agricultural purposes. The largest limber measured sixty 
feet of stem, and three feet in diameter; and the average number 
of trees to an acre is about one hundred and twenty, but some- 
limes tbey are more numerous, amounting to one hundred and 
eighty. Al a distance from the swamps, there is but little under- 
wood; but in their neighbourhood, and generally on all the low 
ground, the sago palm (Cycta media, of Brown), the fan palm 
{Livislona inermix — Brown), the grass palm {Pandanus spiralis 
— Brown), and the cabbage palm {SeafoHhia elegans — Brown), 
are thickly intermingled with the more lofty timber. Amongst tlie 
forest trees, several species of eucalyptus are most abundant. 

Although the timber, as 1 have already stated, is both abundant 
and good, yet one-third or fourtli of the trees are frequently ren- 
dered useless from tlie depredations of the while ants; which 
excavate the interior of a tree from one end to the other, 
forming a tube from three to five inches in diameter ; and even 
the hardest wood, such as lignum vita;, does not escape them. 

During my residence on Melville Island we tried tweuty-flve 
varieties of wood, of which I shall here insert a list; at tbe same 
lime showing the uses to which they were applied, with their dimen- 
sions and qualities. As most of them were of a species unknown 
to any of the colonists (none of whom were botanists), the no- 
menclature was formed either from the colour of the woorf,,^^ 
structure of the bark, form of the leaf, or locality of ihe tree^^^H 
and samples of all of them are in the writer's possession. ^^^| 





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142 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essinglon, 

The only trees \vc met with, pro(hicing an edible fruit, were 
two species of apple and a plum ; one of the apples was very 
acid and astringent, and only palatable in tarts or puddings ; the 
other two fruits, though pleasant to the taste, were not much in- 
dulged in for fear they might prove pernicious. 

Grasses are abundant, and grow very rank, some of them being 
very injurious to the cattle ; but the greater proportion are whole- 
some and nutritive, and the cattle, when once acclimatised, thrive 
veil upon them. Cattle, sheep, and goats, when first landed upon 
Melville Island, suffer very much, either from the grass, water, or 
climate; I cannot decide which — probably a combination of all 
three. During the first three years of the settlement, two-thirds 
of the cattle died in ten or fourteen days after being landed. The 
cows which survived this trial afterwards did very well ; but sheep 
never fattened ; they, however, produced fine lambs, and these, 
as well as the produce of the cows and goats which escaped the 
mortality on first introduction to the island, continued afterwards 
to thrive well. In ISS?^ we adopted a new plan of managing the 
cattle when first lauded, and the deaths were in consequence 
much decreased. 

The grass preferred by the cattle was that which grew on the 
borders of the swamps and the young grass around fallen timber; 
but the fine-looking grass on the forest land they avoided : of this 
we, however, made tolerable hay. We tried several exotic grasses, 
which succeeded very well ; particularly the Capeen and CaSer 
grass. 

^^Besides the forest trees already enumerated (and which are for 
the most part evergreens), there is a great variety of ornamental 
trees, shrubs, and flowers, which give some liveliness through- 
out the year to the otherwise sombre appearance of the island; 
amongst them, the abiscus, casuarina, convolvulus, the bead vine 
{Ahrus precatorius — Linn.), and other runners and parasitical 
plants, are very conspicuous. The loranthus, with scarlet flowers, 
abounds; as also the beautiful calythrix (C microphylla — Cun.), 
bearing a pink-coloured flower*. Of the flowers most numerous 
and beautiful, are the following : — Crinum angustifolium — Br.; 
Calustemma album — Br. ; Ipomcsa pes caprce, with pink 
flowers; Pledranthus salici/olius, with purple flowers; a JJen- 
drobium, with white flowers, &c. 

Some of the mangroves grow to a considerable height, and the 
mangrove holly (Acanthus ilicifolius — Br.) is very frequent in 
their neighbourhood. In the forest land, trees producing a gum 
or rosin are numerous ; this gum, exuding from the bark, forms 
lumps upon the stem, and is much used by the natives in the 



Shrubs of the genus Pcrtoonia are also frequent. 



Memoir of Mdv'tUe Island and Pari Essington, 143 

fonaation of ilieir spears. I can s&y but little of the esculent 
root« indigenous to Melville Island : ihere is a root of a small 
jam-like appearance, and another resembling a parsnip, both of 
wbich were scarce ; and as they were only met with wlien better- 
known vegetables became tolerably plentiful in tlie gardens, I 
do not know that any trial was ever made of them, and we had 
never any opportunity of ascertaining whether they were used by 
the natives or not. The only vegetable production we observed 
them to eat was the young flower-branch or leaves within the 
ftpaths of the cabbage palm, with the seed of the sago palm. The 
former was frequently made use of at the settlement, and a most 
acceptable vegetable it was when boiled or stewed. The cabbage 
palm grows to a great height (sometimes thirty feet), and 
Utterly we obtained the germ, or rather the flower-branch, by 
ascending the tree and cutting it out with a strong knife or toma- 
hawk; but, at the commencement of the settlement, many palms 
nere altogether cut doivn near the root, and they consequently 
became scarce in the neighbourhood of Fort Dundas. though 
we frequently found clumps of them seven or eight miles from 
tu. A Urge bean* is aUo met with in sandy plaeeH, and parti- 
cularly near the shore ; but when cooked and made use of, it 
WB3 apt to occasion pain and a looseness of tfae bowels. 

The lirst settlers reported that cloves and nutmeg were indi- 
genous in die island, but this was altogether amistake; and the 
nutmeg-tree (Myrisiiot mnpida — Br.), which 1 observed growing 
both close to and in the swamps, produced a small nut very 
slightly pungent, scarcely three-quarters of an inch long, but 
egg-shaped, and the mace, or net-work enclosing it, devoid of 
flavour. Some people have also been led to believe that sandal- 
wood was indigenous in Melvdie Island ; but this is also an error, 
aa the wood mistaken for it was the cypress pine, a species of 
Caliilrii, which resembled the sandal-wood in colour, and had 
lomewhat of its pleasing smelt. Wild ginger is, however indi- 
genous in Melville Island. 

Quadrupeds, — Having stated all that I at present recollect 
under the head of indigenous vegetable productions, I shall now 
oientiun those of the animal kingdom. Of four-footed animals, 
we had the kangaroo, opossum, bandicoot, native dog, a small 
brown rat, a species of srjuirrel, and an animal very destructive 
to poultry, with a sharp nose, and the bodr covered with dark 
brown hair : the tail is fourteen inches long, and bare, like that of 
a rat, excepting witliin three inches of the tip, which is covered 
with long while hair ; it measures twenty-seven inches from the 
extremity of the nose to the tip of the tail. The Temale bat, or 

• Baithmi mknphglla. 



I 



144 Memoir of Mchille hlavd and Port Essington, 

fl}'iiig fox, (J'eftpertlUo vampyrus — Linn. Fteropus Edwardsii^ 
DesmaresL Mamm.) is very numerous in the vicinity of the creeks, 
and flies about or suspends itself to trees in flocks of several 
hundreds together : those which I procured measured ten inches 
in length of body, and three feet between the extremities of the 
outstretched membrane. Of all the animals I have mentioned, 
only two of them were used by us as food ; viz., the kangaroo and 
bandicoot ; the former we seldom got, as they resorted to situa- 
tions at too remote and inconvenient a distance to admit of our 
hunting them. The bandicoot afforded good eating, and were 
found generally, on moonlight nights, concealed in the hollow 
trunks of decayed trees. 

Birds. — Of the feathered tribe there is a great variety, and of 
the most beautiful plumage ; amongst them 1 may enumerate the 
following : white cockatoo, with yellow crest ; black cocka- 
too, with red crest and red at the extremity of the tail-feathers ; 
seven varieties of peroquets; six varieties* of pigeons; four kinds 
of king-flsher, and amongst them the gigantic king-fisher {Dacelo 
gigantea — Leach); swamp pheasants (Centropus phasianus — 111.) ; 
quail ; curlew ; wild ducks ; sand-larks (seen in flocks in Novem- 
ber); wild geese (rare); and a wild black fowl of the gallinaceous 
order, weighing from three to four pounds^ and found in packs 
amongst the long grass near swamps, the flesh hard and insipid ; 
blue and white cranes, and several more of the genus Ardea^ 
There are magpies, ravens, hawks, owls, and wattle-birds ; and 
many beautiful small birds are also abundant. 

Reptiles, — Amongst the class reptiles, we found a great variety 
of the snake tribe, measuring from one foot to twelve in length : 
they were met with everywhere — in the forest, swampy ground, 
and houses. Although several of the soldiers and convicts were 
bitten by them, none of the wounds were very serious^ excepting 
in the case of one man (the overseer), who was bitten by a snake 
whilst in bed. The reptile took a piece of the flesh clean out 
of his thigh; and as there was no medical man on the island 
at the time. Lieutenant Bate (who was superintending the sick, 
and was immediately informed of the accident) burnt the wound 
all around with caustic, instead of cutting any part away. The 
man suffered considerable pain for some days, and experienced 
many of the sensations felt by those who have been bitten by 
venomous reptiles. •He was confined for ten days from the effect 
of the bite. The snake was found on the following morning in 
the overseer's hut, coiled up under a box. It was immediately 
killed, and burnt upon a fire before I had an opportunity of ex- 
auuning it It was described to me as being six feet long, with 
a bmad head and small neck. Another snake was brought to me 
which had bitten a dog and drawn blood. It measured ten feet 



Memoir of Mdville Inland and Port Essinglon. 145 

ill length, had a broad, flat head, and small neck. Il was ruriiUbed 
with a double row uf very sharp teetli : the fungs were curved, and 
measured three-quarters of an inch in length, and a small bladder 
was attached to the root of each. The back was of a dark omttted 
brown colour, with a while belly. Although this appeared to be 
a venomous snake, yet the dog nevei- sutl'ered from the bile. Tliis 
1 attributed to his long hair pieveiitiiig tiie poison entering the 
wound. 

The Saurinn order are very numerous, the most remarkable 
being the frilled iguana, or Clamydosaurus Kingii of Gray. 
llie common iguana {Iguana detivalissimii), from two lo four feet 
in length, also abounds.* The skink-formed lizard {Telequa luber- 
adaia. Gray) is met with in stony places ; and an endless variety 
of tbe smaller tacertaij of beautiful colours, are seen wherever the 
eye is directed, sporting in the sun, and cunningly waiting to en- 
trap any unsuspecting insect that ventures near. Frogs of an 
immense size (four and live inches in length of body, and prettily 
tpolted) swarm in damp places. 

Apsley Strait, and all the creeks around Melville Island, abound 
with alligators (caimans). They measure from fourteen to seven- 
teen feet in length ; and in ihe clear water around the island, are 
frequently seen water-snakes, two and three feet in length, and 
spotted black and yellow. Turtles are common on tlie sea-coast 
of Melville island, but tliey were never seen in Apsley Strait, and 
we of consequence were never able to obtain any for the use of the 
settlement. Our limited number, and necessary occupations at 
the settlement, deprived us of the power of sending parties to any 
such distance as would detain them beyond twenty-four hours. 
Even to procure a few fish, we were obliged to send ten miles 
from the settlement, to the nearest tishing-ground; and owing to 
the strung tides and currents, and ihc tishing lime being ihat of 
half flood, a party, after drawing the seine as often as it was 
attended with success, could seldom return under twenty-four 
hours ; and in so warm a climate, the few tisb they caught were 
by that time scarcely fresh enough to be eaten. 1 have been on 
these excursions ail night, exposed to heavy rain, for the purpose 
of obtaining a change of food for those intrusted to my care, and 
have returned with probably only about eighty or one hundred 
pounds' weight of tish, for the supply of one hundred and thirty 
individuals. Although, as I have already stated, we were never 
able to lake turtle, yet I have seen them swimming about in con- 
siderable numbers oil' Brenton 13ny, near Point Jahleel, 

IruecU. — To the entomologist Melville Island ulfers an ample 

* lliEni^uiu biiTroH like rabbili unilciground, and their holes ace lO Durderons 
IB tke light tiBuily wil uf thu fgresi, that it lequirei considerable caution tt avaiJ 




I 



p 



140 Memoir ofMchille Island and Port Essinglon. 

field for obsenation. The species are both numerous and beauti- 
ful ; and (be viciniij' of llie swamps would aflbrd ihe insect col- 
lector ail abundant harvest. The orders hemiptera and Wpidoptera 
ore particularly beautiful, and in great numbers, and that of cole- 
oplera is also found abundant in species. Of the order neuroptera, 
the libellula, or dragon-fly, is in great variety and beauty; and 1 
have seen live kinds uf ant, chiefly of tlie genus termites : viz., the 
wiiite ant, which rears its pyramidal dwelling to the height of seven 
or eight feet ; the green ant ; red and black ant ; large black ant ; 
and a very minute ant, that can scarcely be discerned with the 
naked eye. Tlie white ant infests the houses, and destroys every- 
thing that comes in its way. These insects make their approach 
fey forming an earthen gallery, under cover of which they advance 
in myriads, and commit terrible depredations, They cut through 
all bale goods in our stores, such as canvass, blankets, shirts, 
trowsers, and even shoes. They are so rapid in their operations, 
tliat I know instances where bales, containing two dozen of shirta 
each, each shirt packed one above the other, and placed on shelves 
four feet from the floor, and six inches from the wall, have been 
perforated through and through in twen^-four hours, notwith- 
standing that the storekeeperexamined the balesevery day, and that 
on the day previous to those discoveries, not an ant was to be seen 
in the store. But these insects do not confine their attacks to bale 
goods. They entered my cellar, and in a few days' time destroyed 
two dozen of claret; and during a period of four days, while one 
of the soldiers was in the hospital, they completely gutted his 
kiiapsflck. which was hanging on a peg in his barrack-room, and 
contained all his necessaries. They spread through it in all direc' 
tions, and destroyed his shirts, trowsers, stockings, jacket, shoes, 
and even razors. Of the latter, the blades were encased in 
rust, from the moisture, or viscus, which these insects carry along 
with them, and the horn handles were eaten through. In the 
course of three or|four weeks, they also destroyed thirty pounds' 
worth of clothes belonging to Mr. Rndford, one government tent 
twenty feet long, three hundred feet of timber in the timber house, 
three ammunition boxes in the magazine, sixty-live pairs of 
trowsers, and twenty-three smock-frocks in the engineer's store- 
There are several species of bee, and amongst them a very small 
one about the eighth of an inch in length, that produces fine honey, 
which they deposit in trees. Mosquitoes and saud-tlies are the 
pest of the island : they kept us in a perpetual fever, and no aea- 
Boning by climate secured us against their attack. 

From sunrise until sunset, the sand-Hies issue forth in millions, 
and keep one in a constant state of irritation by tjxing upon tlie 
face, neck, and hands — where, inserting their proboscis, they 



Memoir of Mrhille Island and Part Es-iington. 147 

inBict most severe pain, and cause the blood to flow most pro- 
fuselv. When they tiike their departure at sunset, the mos(]uiiiie» 
reniiad jon tliut the toimi:iitg of tlie day are not yet passed ; and 
from six u'dfX'k until ten they exercise their tormenting powers, 
nhicfa are loo wall known to recjuire description. 

The next annoying and destructive insect is the cockroacli : 
llie*e became very nnnierotis, swarmed in the houses, and destroyed 
clothes, pu))er, bread, and books, indisciiminalely. These insects 
generally made their appearance at night and, as if by a concerted 
signal, issued from their hiding-pluces all at once, and made a 
noise by scampering along the walls, as if heavy showers of liail 
were falling. Besides the insects mentioned, 1 may add the 
scorpion, centipede, and tarantula, each of which were in great 
numbers. 

Sea Productions. — In regard to the sea productions, my ob- 
servations are very limited. The following are all I met with : — 
the common shark, porpoise, sting ray, rock cod, mullet in abun- 
dance, cal-tish, pipe-tish, sole, flounder, bream, Hying lish, ground 
(hark, and a very good entiiig tish called by the sailors ' skip-jack.' 
We never procured any sbell-tish ; and on my walks along the 
beaches, I met with very few shells of any kind. It is probable 
that the natives are always'on the look-out for any shell-tish that 
may be driven on shore, and carry them off for food, as 1 have 
found at their encampments the shells of the tiger nautilus, cockles, 
and oysters. The biche la mer, or sea slug, was found in small 
quantities, but by no means so plenlifnl as to induce any of the 
Malay tishers to approach Melville Island in search of it. 

Ctimale. — The climate of Melville Island is certainly unhealthy 
from the end of October until the beginning of April, or even 
until May. The heat is excessive, and the atmosphere, then over- 
charged with moisture, is extremely oppressive and debilitating. 
This is the period of the north-west monsoon, or rainy season; and 
the general range of the thermometer is from 8Cf to 100° in the 
shade, and seldom varies more than 12" during the twenty-four 
houra. The mid-day heat is 89° or 90°, and the extremes 77° 
and 100°. These were the ranges at Fort Dundas, which waa 
surronnded by swamps, and about twenly-iive feet above the level 
of the sea. At this season, the body is constantly bathed in per- 
spiration — morning, noon, and night; and the debility occasioned 
by the combined effects of the heat and damp is most distressing. 
VVitlioutany muscular exertion, labour, or even common exercise, 
debility, weariness. Usdessness, and a sensation of excessive fatigue, 
we universally experienced and complained of. On rising in the 
morning, fatigue and a want of refreshment is felt ; and after a 
few minutes' slow walking, even after the sun is down, the act 
of lifting the feet is a fatiguing exertion, and the body feels a 



I 



148 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 

Beiisation of weight pressing upon it, and bearing it down. Altliougli 
the settlement of Fort Uuiidas was aurrounded by deep swamps, 
and broad belts of mangrove growing out of mud beds, yet the 
swamps, being generally full of trees, oud surrounded by thick 
underwood, the exhalation arising from evaporation was probubly 
not so injurious as it would have been, if cleared from limber. 
In the mornings at day-break, these swamps were generally covered 
with a dense vapour, which was dissipated in an hour after sun~ 
rise; but for a distance of two or three hundred yards from the 
swamps, there was always a miasma, or oppressive heavy smell uf 
decayed vegetable and animal matter. 

The north-west monsoon sets in about the beginning of Novem- 
ber, when the sun is approaching the meridian of Melville Island 
on its passage to the southward : it is preceded by squalls and 
variable winds, and its setting in varies sometimes three or four 
weeks, in comparing one year with another. During this mon- 
soon, there is almost daily thunder in the afternoon and evenings. 

In 18'24, the rains and north-vyest monsoon commenced early 
in November. In 1825, they commenced about the same period. 
In 1826, they did not set in until December. In 1827, the rain 
and stfualls commenced about the middle of October ; but there 
was that year no regular monsoon either at Melville Island or in 
the Timor seas. As in all tropical climes, the rain falls in torrents 
during this season, but seldom continues above two or three hours 
at a time — falling generally from two to five o'clock in the after- 
noon, or during the night ; therefore, there is scarcely a day but 
out-door labour may be carried on for a few hours. 

The most unhealthy season is during the north>west monsoon, 
particularly at the commencement of the rains, when fevers, 
dysentery, diarrhcea, and constipation of the bowels, are vcrj- fre- 
quent ; but from timely remedies, which our system of surveillance 
insured, these complaints seldom terminated fatally. 1 observed, 
that when the setting in of the rainy season was protracted beyond 
the usual period, sickness was increased : this was the case in 
1826, and the same observation was made at Coepang Timor that 

We had ten or twelve cases of fever in November and Decem- 
ber, five uf which proved fatal, the patients dying in twenty-four 
or thirty hours after being admitted into hospital. 

The termination of the north-west monsoon is indicated by 
squalls, and sometimes a tempest in the early part of April, as was 
the case in 1827 and 18S8. The sun then returning to the north- 
ward, the wind settles in the south-east, the sky becomes clear, the 
rains cease, the atmosphere becomes drier, and the weather more 
temperate. In May, the hospital, which was generally pretty full 
during the former monsoon, gets cleared, animal spiriu revive, and 



Memoir of Mvloille hland and Port Essington. 149 

the tbenuometcr ranges from 75° to 90°, the mkl-day heal being 
87* and 89°. June, July, August, and September, are tlie only 
tolerably pleasant munlhs in the year ; the mornings and evenings 
are pleasantly cool, and exercise can be freely taken until ten in 
tlie morning and after four o'clock in the afternoon, and may fre- 
quently, with impunity, be taken even in mid-day. No rain falls 
during these months, but there are frequent heavy dews at night. 
In exposed places, vegetation is completely burnt up; but, witli 
great care, some garden vegetables are preserved, (he chief of 
which is the pumpkin. The thermometer during these monlhs is 
(i7° at six o'clock in the morning, 87° at three m the afternoon, 
77* at nine at night ; the extremes being 63° and 89°. Notwith- 
standing the great heat at Melville Island at all seasons, and lite 
clearness of the sky during the dry season, or south-east monsoon, 
the atmosphere contains considerable moisture; although not per- 
ceptible to the senses, yet it is evident from the great diOiculty iu 
keeping articles made of steel from rust. 

Although the wet and dry seasons are pretty regular, yet the 
winds are not always steady near the land, viz. blowing from the 
uorth-west point wiLli the x-imy monsoon, and the sauth'cast point 
with the dry monsoon ; but vary several points with each monsoon. 
In Apsley Straits a breeze frequently sets in from seaward, or 
from the northward, with the flood tide during the south-east mon- 
soon ; but we had no regular land and sea breezes. 

Diseases. — During the period I was on Melville Island, we 
kept a regular hospital register- book, in which every case admitted 
into the liospital was entered daily, and the disease, treatment, 
and duration of the patient's illness carefully inserted. I had an 
opportunity of daily examhiing this register, and had it copied 
every moruing into the register kept in my own oflice, for the pur- 
pose of transmitting to tlie colonial secretary at Sydney; there- 
fore, although I cannot exactly cari? in my memory the number 
of deaths, I perfectly recollect the prevailing diseases, most of 
which I find noted in my journal, as well as many of the deaths. 
The prcvaihng diseases were — intermittent, acute, and typhus 
fevers, constipation of the bowels, vertigo (frequent), dysenteiy, 
diarrhoea, rheumatism, scurvy, and nectalopia ; the latter disease 
was very common. The cases of typhus and acute fever appeared 
at the beginning of the wet season ; and when the w inds were vari- 
able during that period, many were suddenly seized with sickness, 
violent griping, and delirium. We could not account for the pre- 
valence of nectalopia, or, as it is sometimes called, moon-blindness. 
Salt meal was certainly generally issued to every person, but ihey 
had, besides, a wholesome proportion of flour, rice, or bread, with 
vinegar, tea, sugar, and a smalt quantity of vegetables ; nor were 
the settlers exposed to any extraordinary glare from siind or water. 



I 



150 Memoir ftf MeteiUe Island and Port EssingUm. 

and many wbo had this complaint used Tery liltle of their salt 
meat. Even when fresh meat was issued, tlus disease prevailed 
to a considerable extent. 

With respect to the scurvy, it appeared to me to be an endemic 
disease arising from some peculiar local cause ; wiUi new coiners, 
it might be occasioned by a removal from a cool climate to a 
heated and damp one. This disease only appeared generally 
St the settlement of Fort Dundas, sliortly after its establishment 
in I8'J4. The constant use of salt provisions, without vegetables, 
hard labour during the wet season, and the excessive heat of that 
I aeason, may have engendered it ; and notwithstanding the atten- 

' tion and endeavours of an intelligent and experienced surgeon 

' (Dr. Tnnier) to prevent and afterwards arrest it, the disease 

I made great progress until the end of 1825, or beginning of IH'iG. 

When lime jutce was obtained, and vegetables became more 
plentiful, the disease then subsided. There were, however, several 
cases of scurvy during 1S2G, 1827, and 1828, although the utmost 
caution was taken to guard against it by great attention to cleanli- 
ness, use of vegetables, and frenuent Issues of fresh and preserved 
meats, pickles, and vinegar. When the first detachment of troops 
were relieved in 1826, those who replaced them had spirits mixed 
into grog issued to them every day (the former detachment had 
110 spirits issued); and amongst these very few cases of scurvy 
appeared, although they lived generally upon salt provisions for 
the lirst year, with a very small occasional addition of vegetables, 
probshly once a week. 

When the settlement was established m Raflles Bay in 1S37, 
on the north coast of New Holland, and in the same parallel 
with Fort Dundas, at which place no spirits or wine was issued 
cither to the military or convicts, the scurvy broke out and 
spread in a rapid and alarming degree, both amongst the soldiers 
and prisoners. 

•The site of the settlement and its neighbourhood was dry; 
the disease occurred during the dry season. The establisbment 
consisted of young healthy men. direct from Sydney, and many of 
them only a few months from England. The complaint made its 
appearance among the settlers in six or seven weeks after landing : 
their diet consisted of a small quantity of salt meat, and occasion- 
nlly tish (which was caught close to the settlement), with flour, 
sugar, and tea or coffee. When the malady had attacked and 
rendered incapable of exertion two -thirds of the settlement, 
spirits, lime juice and sugar made into punch, was issued to all 
the worst cases, and grog or wine issued to the military. It 
immediately remitted in virulence, and ultimately nearly or entirely 
disappeared. I saw all the suftercrs myself, having had occasion 
tu go to Raffles Bay ; and from my observations and iui^uiries, 



k 



Memoir of Mehilh Island and Port Essington. 



151 



I certainly thought that the scurvy there, as well as on Melville 
hlaiid, was endemic, and more dependent on climate and local 
causes than diet. 

Considering the consequences of the climate of Melville 
Island, during my residence there and that of my predecessor, and 
knowing the unremitting attention that was paid, and measures 
fidopted, iu order to preserve health throughout the settlement 
during my command, I must pronounce it to partake more of tb« 
character of an unhealthy than a healthy climate. I should not 
recommend invalids to go liiere during any period of the year to 
be restored to health, from any part of the world ; although from 
May to ^icplembcr, healtliy people may continue in the enjoyment 
of ueallh wilh rulional care ; l>ut from the end of September to 
May, few can escape some attack or other of illness. The 
climate, after a year's residence, is extremely debilitating to 
Europeans ; but on the whole, witU proper precautions, it does 
not often engender any fatal complaint. I must, however, men- 
tion one gentleman who suffered much from the climate : this wag 
Mr. Miller, of the commissariat, who remained in a very debili- 
tated stale for a year and more after leaving the inland. Idurt: say 
if elevated spots were cleared, extensive openings made, and good 
commodious airy houses built, Europeans would find it as healthy 
aa any equally low island within Uie tropics. 

The foregoing remarks are ap|jlicuble to the effect of cliraate 
OD those living on shore ; — the crews of the government vessel 
attached to the settlement, which plied between Melville Island 
and Timor, were always in health. The following is an account 
of the deaths which occurred (as appears on reference to my 
despatches) from the establishment of the settlement, in ^ep- 
tember 18'24, until 1 was relieved, in May 1828: — 

From September 1824 to September 1820, the population had 
been 136 ; the deaths 12. From September \8%G to May 18^8, 
ihe population had been 133, and the deaths 14. The total 
number of persons who had resided on the island during these 
four years amounted to 160, out of which there were 'iO deaths; 
but as six of those deaths were accidental (two of them being , 
caused by drowning, and four killed by the natives) we lind only 
SO deaths by sickness — which is about one death out of every 
nine. 

I shall here subjoin the result of my thermometrical observa- 
tions J and may also remark that we experienced successive shocks 
of an earlliquake on the Isl, 2nd, 3rd, and 19th of August, HJ27; 
each shock tasted about a minute. The sensation was, as if the 
island had been shook violently by some immense power, attended 
at the same time by an indistinct rumbling noise. It was not an 
undulating or upheaving, but a violent trcinbliiig or shaking 
motion. 



152 Memoir ofMehitlc Inland and Port Esslngtitt 



METEOROLOGICAL TABLK. 1 


Month. 


llcrmomeler. 


Aveng* 
SutBoftheWolhGT. 


I 


« 


1 


^ 


; 


1 


£ 


1 

g 

S 

i 
1 

1 

j 


April... 
M.y.... 

JUDB.... 

July.... 
Augu.1. 
Septem.. 

Odober . 
Noram. . 
Decern. . 
January . 
Fetiuury 
Much.. 


79 
?s 

6fl 
63 

70 

75 

76 
S3 
SO 
79 
78 


di 

80 
76 

70 

ze 
77 

80 

84 
8J 
8*J 
«3 


a? 

87 

84 
33 

8i 

as 

90 
89 
S7 
87 
88 


8B 
87 
86 
85 
67 
87 

00 
9S 

90 
88 
88 
^0 


80 
77 

eg 

75 

78 

82 

84 
83 
83 
S3 

S3 


79 
77 
75 

a 

72 
77 

79 
81 

SI 
82 
81 

80 


90 
90 

87 
90 
92 

95 
99 
99 
91 

94 
95 


CImidy, with squatU aad raiu 

lsllol4lh; cIbm anil dry 

ftomthe IMhtgSOth. 
Clear WKfllhtr. wilh lifiht 

(Mulcrly iiul Eoulberly 

windH. 
Cl»tr westher, with eotb'riy 

winds, and itrung brwiui 

in ths afleroooD. 
A mixture of cltuir & cloudy 

weather, with variable 

winds. 
Pleaiant doudy weather, 

with bim'iui from the S.E. 

and N.W. 
Pkasnnt clouily weather. 

with variable winds S.K. 
[ and N.W. 

Cloudy and aultry, with va- 
riable wi»<U ; sooie raio 
I and Ihundet. 

Cloudy, with thunder, fre- 
quent ahowBTB Bud squalla 
frDinS.K.tng.W. 
j Cloudy, and calm clone wea- 
ther, much rain, Ihundei, 
andsqualU; wind M.W. 

Squally, with heavy rtiin, 

hut nij;btil. 
Cloudy, miny wtralher, with 

wind from the N.W. and 

S.W. 
Cloudy, caim, sultry wealher. 

with ruin in the afternoon ; 

wiud variable. 



Natives, — In personal appearance the natives of Melville IsIaDd 
resemble those of the continent (if 1 may so call it) of New 
Holland, and are evidently fioni the same stock ; but they are 
more athletic, active, and enterprising than those I saw on the 
southeni coast of i^ustralia, at Port Jackson, Newcastle, or 
Hunter's River. They are not generally tall in stature, nor are 
they, when numbers are seen together, remarkable for small men. 
In groups of iliirty, 1 have seen five or six strong powerful men of 
six feet id height, and some as low as five feet four, and five. 



Memoir of MehiUe Island and Port Eminglim. 153 

They are well formed about the bixly and Uiighs ; but their legs 
are small in proportion, and iheir lect very large ; their heads ave 
Sat and broad, with low foreheads, and the baclc. of llie head 
projects very much; tlietr liair is strong, like horse-hair, thick, 
ciiily or frizzled, and jet black; their eyebrows and cheek-bones 
ve extremely prominent — eyes small, sunk, and very briijht and 
keen ; nose flat and short, the upper lip thick and projecting ; 
mouUi remarkably large, with regular line while teeth; chin 
small, and fuce much contracted at bottom. They have the 
J^fum o/^ //in nose perforated, wear long bushy beards, and have 
llieir shoulders and breasts scarified ; the skin is not latoued, as 
with the New Zealauder, but is scarified, and raised in a very 
tasteful manner;* and their countenance expresses good-humour 
and cunning. All those who have reached tlie age of puberty are 
deticient of an upper front tooth — a custom common in New 
Holland. The colour of their skin is a rusty black, and they go 
about perfectly naked; their Uair is sometimes lied in a knot, 
with a feather fixed in it; and they frequently daub it with a 
jellow earth. On particular occasions, when in grief, or jiiteuding 
mischief or open hostilities, they paint their bodies, faces, and 
limbs with white or red pigments — so as to give themselves a most 
fantastic, and even hideous appearance. f In disposition they are 
revengeful, prone to stealing, and in tbeir attempts to commit 
depredations show excessive cunning, dexterity, arrangement, 
enterprise, and cotrrage. They are afteclionate towards their 
children, and display strung feelings of tenderness when separated 
from their families; they are also very sensitive to any thing like 
ridicule. They are good mimics, have a facility in catching up 
words, and are gifted wiili considerable observation. When they 
express joy, they jump about and clap their hands violently upon 
their posteriors ; and in showing contempt, they turn their back, 
look over the shoulder, and give a smack upon the same part with 
their hand. In the construction of their canoes, spears, and 
waddies, they evince much ingenuity, although the workmanship 
is rough from the want of tools; they are expert swimmers, and 
di«e like ducks. They show no desire whatever for strange orna- 
ments or trinkets ; they are polite enough to accept of them 
without any expression of astonishment or curiosity, but very soon 
afterwards take an opportunity of slyly dropping them, or throwing 
them away. The only articles they seemed to covet were hatchets 

• TIi« breut of one loken lu-iioner wan scaii6ed, and rormed into r'nlgvi, much 
mnnlilin(> the luce-HOik on a husKar's jucket 

\ They coier their budiei wild ktvojib, it is lUiiposed to secure tliem from tha 
pwcciui; iling of the Mwd-flipi anil niUE^4uilue> ; and their liodies smeU au aboDg that 
aea Ihe cailJe umhI to detect Ihem at halTa mile dlituice, and ^Uap i>IT, twllfwipp 
in gnat a^iparent alarm. 



I 



154 Memoir ofMeloUh Island and Port Esstnglm. 

and other culling tools ; but still, when they could steal, they 
carried off every thing they could lay hold of. As long as we 
occupied the island, the natives were extremely shy and cautious 
I in all their communications with us; they never intrusted them- 
selves in our power ; and notwithstanding my utmost efforU by acts 
of kindness and forbearance to gain their confidence, and convince 
tbem that we desired to be on fiiendly terms, I found it utterly im- 
possible to accomplish this desirable object. Previous to my arrival 
ibey had committed murder, various depredations, and daring acts 
of violence, They had at length been fired upon whilst com- 
mitting acts of outrage ; and from all my inquiries 1 believe they 
had been the first aggressors, by throwing spears. When I 
assumed the command, I was extremely anxious to court their 
friendship, as without it, with our limited numbers and means, 
we never could become acquainted with all the resources of the 
island, or make them of available use to us : I therefore prevented 
any of the military or prisoners from putting themselves in contact 
*ith tlie natives without my presence or orders; I allowed no 
wms to be taken out except by those on whom 1 could depend, 
and strictly enjoined that they should only be used against the 
natives in self-defence, and when by the taws of England it 
would be justifiable. I feel confident, also, that these orders 
were strictly attended to ; but notwithstanding they continued 
until the last day distrustful, if not even determinedly hostile. 
They put two gentlemen of the settlement, one soldier and 
one of the prisoners, to death, and wantonly wounded several 
others. During my time we were obliged to lire at them several 
times ; we never knew of any having been killed, although in one 
or two instances they were wounded ; they might have died, and 
the spirit of revenge might have excited them to other acts of 
violence. There was a curious inconsistency in their conduct; 
on one day they would appear good-humoured and friendly, and 
allow individuals of our settlement to pass unmolested through 
extended lines of ihein, and probably on the following day would 
throw their spears at any individual they could surprise by stealing 
upon him. They never came near us without their spears and 
waddics ; but sometimes they would leave their spears a few 
hundred yards in their rear, concealed behind trees, amongst the 
long grass, or in possession of some young boys, who would run 
up to them on the first signal j they would then approach within 
fifty or sixty paces, extend their arms, throw their waddies to the 
rear in token of amity, and then by signs oblige all those who 
approached them from ourside to extend their arms also, and turn 
round to show they had no weapons concealed ; when aatisHed, 
they ^would enter into a palaver, and two ur three of the most 
daring would advance in front of the others, which latler (part 




Memoir of Melville htand and Port Essington. 155 

formed Jn a group, and a part extended singly to a distance of a 
quarter of a mile oil each Hunk) would remain ready to support 
thrni in case of emergencv. These few in advance would allow 
one or two of our people to approach within two or three paces 
of them, determined to maintain a superiority of two or three to 
one. Fearful of drawing this memoir out to too great a length, I 
must refrain from relating any of their daring and cunning acts of 
aggression, or the numerous interesting occurrences which took 
place. Suffice it to sa,r, that we hud one of Uiese savages as a 
prisoner for several weeks, from whom I learnt a good deal of 
their character ; and the following little circumstance caused me 
to conjecture, at an early period, the reason of their being so 
suspicious of strangers : — 

In one of my interviews with a tribe of the aborigines, who 
had approached to the outward boundary of the forest, and within 
half a mile of the fort, I observed that they appeared more familiar 
than usual. Having previously prepared a mcdul, attached to a 
piece of scarlet tape, 1 expressed a wish to hang it round the neck 
of a fine-looking young man, who bore a feather in his hair, and 
appeared to have some authority. This young man remained at a 
ihoit distance (two or three paces), took hold of his wrists, and 
appeared as if struggling to escape from the grasp of an enemy; 
be then pointed his hand towards his neck, looked upwards to the 
branches of a tree, shook his head signiticnntly (evidently in allu- 
sion to being hung), and avoided coming nigh enough to receive 
the proffered gift. This led me to imagine that the island had 
been visited by strangers, and the natives forced away by them as 
slaves; in corroboration of which opinion, 1 may add three other 
circumstances which came under my notice : — 

The first is, that the Malay fishermen, from Maccassar, are 
forfaiddeti to go near Melville Island (which they call Amba), 
alleging that it is infested by pirates — probably slavers, as amba, 
tn the Malay langua>;e, signities a slave. 

The second circumstance relates to a lad, w!io had been taken 
from a native tribe in \^1b, and detained at the settlement three 
or four days, when he escaped. This lad was the colour of a 
Malay, and possessed their features : wlience it is probable that 
he was taken when a child from some Malay slave-ship or fishing 
pr6a, and reared amongst the Melville Islanders. 

The third circumstance is. that when Captain King, R.N., 
entered Apsley Straits, in 1818, and was proceeding towards the 
shore near Luxmorehead in his boat, a number of natives were on 
the beach ; and a female, who entered the water in order to 
decoy him close to the shore, called out ' Viu aca, vin aca,' This 
being a Portuguese expression, induces me to believe that vessels 
from the Portuguese settlcmeut of Delhi, ou the north side of 



I 



■* 



liG Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 

Timor, might have visited Melville Island, for the purpose of 
seizing the natives, and carrying them away as slaves. 

Duting the four years that ibis inland was occupied, only two 
aboriginal females were seen, and at a distance : they were both 
[ old and ngly, and their only garment was a short nairow apron of 
plaited grass. We frequently saw young boys, from sis to twelve 
years of age, along with the men : they were well made, plump in 
person, good-looking, and with a remarkable expression of sharp- 
uess in their eyes. 

The weapons used are spears and waddies: the spears are 
from ten to twelve feet long, made of a heavy wood, and very 
I (harp -pointed ; some are plain, others barbed — some have a single 
' row of barbs, from twelve to tifieen in numbur, and others a. 
double row ; they may weigh three pounds, and are thrown from 
the hand (without any artiticial lever, as at Port Jackson) witli 
great precision and force, to a distance of fifty or sixty yards. 

The waddies are used as weapons of attack, as well as for 
killing wild animals and birds. 1 hey are made of a heavy wood, 
twenty-two inches long, one and a half in diameter, pointed sharp 
St one end, and weighing above two pounds ; they are not round 
and sniootli. but have sixteen equal sides, with a little rude carving 
at die handle, to eiisure llieir being held firmer in the hand. 

Their canoes, water-buckets, and baskets, are made of bark, 
neatly sown willi strips of split cane. The canoes consist of one 
piece of bark, are twenty feet long, twenty-eight incites wide, and 
fifteen deep ; the stem and stem are neatly sewn with thin slips of 
cane, and caulked with white clay J the gunwales are strengthened 
by two small young saplings (such as grow in marshy places) 
fastened together at each end of the canoe ; the sides are kept 
from closing by pieces of wood placed across, and which also 
answer as seats. 

The natives of Melville and Bathurst Islands are divided into 
tribes, of from thirty to fifty persons each ; I do not think that 
I ever saw above thirty-five or forty men together, although some 
individuals, surprised by them in the forest, have reported having 
seen a hundred; tlie noise lliey make, and tlieir jumping from tree 
to liee, make them often appear more numerous than they actually 
are. They lead a wandering life, though I think each tribe confines 
itself to a limited district ; and probably when tired of one, or their 
resources are exhausted, the strongest may usurp that of a weaker. 
In 18!i4-5 a tribe of daring alldetic men kept constantly in the 
neigbbourhood of I-ort Dundas, In the beginning of 1826, a 
strange tribe visited the settlement, and they were generally slight- 
made men ; but by the end of the year the former tribe returned, 
and continued to remain in the neighbourhood until the island wai 
abundoued in 11329- During the dry season they dispersed tbem- 



L. 



Memoir of Melville Island ami Port Es.upglon. ];,7 

selves B good deal on hunting excursions, and burnt tlic grass on 
ihe forest grounds for that purpose from April lo September. 
I lliink wiien they move that their women and cliihlren accompany 
iheiD, as female voices were frequently heard at a distance at 
night, proceeding from llieir encampments. They generally 
encamp on aandybanks, amongst the mangroves, or on dry open 
spots near swamps, or on the sea-coaat. They do not give them- 
selves the trouble of constructing wigwams in the dry season, 
merely forming a bed of palm-leaves, or long grass, wherever they 
repose for the night; but during the wet season they have some 
covering, and their encampment being more stationary, displays a 
little comfort, and is generally in a pleasant spot near the sea. 

Tbe following is an account of my visit to one: — Upon 
landing under the high sandy beach, we came upon an extensive 
encampment of natives ; the men, women, and children all Hed 
like frighted deer, and left na (juietly to examine dieir domestic 
economy. There were thirty wigwams, all made of newly- 
slripped bark ; each consisted of a single sheet of bark, formed 
iulo a shed or mere roof, open at each end, with a fire at the 
entrance ; the interior space was four feet and a half long, three 
in width, and three feet high. Pieces of soft silky bark, rolled up 
in several folds, and answering as pillows and seats, were in each 
wigwam. Some of these erections were placed under spreading 
shrubs; and the twigs being artfully entwined into each other, 
formed a tasteful Inclosure. Several of them were ornamented 
inside by figures drawn with white clay: one in particular was 
neatly and regularly done all over, representing the cross-bars of a 
prison-window. The utensils consisted only of bark buckets and 
baskets; and the ground around was strewed with the shells 
of turtle, crabs, oysters, and limpets. At one end of the encamp- 
ment lay the materials for constructing a canoe ; and on a block 
of wood close to it was observed marks made with an axe, or 
lotnahawk. We commilted no depredations, and saw the natives 
hastening back when we quitted the shore. 

The food of these people consists of kangaroo, opossum, ban- 
dicoot, iguanas, and lizards during the dry months ; tish, tuille, 
crabs, and other shell-lish, during the wet months; and their 
vegetables are the cnbbage-palm and fruit of the sago-palm. 
They eat their meat just warmed through on a wood lire ; and the 
seed of the sago-palm is made into a kind of mash. Amongst 
those natives whom we encountered, I never saw any deformed, 
or having the appearance of disease or old age; — probably such 
were left with the women, in places of security, and only the able 
warriors came near us. There was one powerful, deterniined- 
looking fellow frequently seen, who haii lost a hand ; and he 



I 



158 Memoir of Melville Island and Purl Esdng^inn. 

threw his spoar by resting it on hi§ maimed arm, and taking a 
deliberate aim. 

Although the Aborigines of Melville aud Balhurst Islands aie 
of the same race or breed as those ihroughoul New Holland, yet 
their language is different. We had a native of the southern 
cosil with ua for a short time, and he could not understand u 
word they uttered. They apeak low and quick to each other ; 
but their pronunciation is so indistinct, we scarcely ever made 
out a word. 1 was in hopes of picking up much of their lan- 
guage from the native we had made prisoner, but during the time 
lliat I was absent on an excursion to Poit Essington, lie effected 
his escape. His dialect did not sound harsh ; and his expressions 
were very significant, from the gestures with which he accompanied 
them. 

The following are some of those expressions : — 'Co curdy' — ■ 
Water, give me some water, or I am tliirsiy ; ' Hooloo. kaolon'— 
My belly is full, I am not hungry; ' Bvngee' — Fire-arms; 
' No bungee' — Uon't fire ; * Peerce' — An axe ; ' Pakee' — Peace 
or friendship ; ' Piccanini ' — Children.* 

I do not think that these Islanders ever cross over to the coast 
of New Holland; for the currents are so rapid in Dundas and 
Clarence Straits, that it would be dangerous for their slight canoes; 
and although so clotte to the Cobourg Peninsula, yet tlie spears of 
the Melville Islanders are difTerently formed from those used by 
the natives of that peninsula, and much heavier. 

It appears to be the custom of the natives to bury their dead, 
their burial-places being in retired spots near their most fret^uented 
encamping ground. The burial-place is circular, probably ten or 
twelve feet in diameter ; it is surrounded by upright poles, many of 
which are formed at top like lances and halberts, fourteen or 
fifteen feet high ; and between these the spears and waddics (pro- 
bably of the deceased) are stuck upright in the ground. 

It is quite impossible to form any i?stimate of the numbers of 
the natives, but they are seen on all parts of the coast of these 
two islands. I shall not presume even to give a guess at their pro- 
bable number. 

The following is a list of the exotic fruits, grain, vegetables, 
&c., which we cultivated in Melville Island; with remarks on 
their success. 







^■—P^H ■ 


1 




^HH^^H ^ 




I Memoir of MehiUe Island and Port Essinglon. 159 


1 




Lui of Fruits, VegetuhUt, Roots, Plants, and Grains, which were 


I 




grmm or tried on MdviUe hiand. 


1 




Nun... 


Qimlity, 


acmwki. 


PUialBioi . , 


Excellent 


Produced fruit throughout the year. 




Ctwtanl Api'lo . 


DiltD. 








COCDO-Nut . 


DitlD. 


Plool. throve well, I82C— 9. 






Lnnoil. . . 










Lima . . 




















Orson , , 


I ( 


All these [danlBwere thrivinR wlOI, but had 






iltago . . 


■ • ■ 1 


uut Balanced fat enough to I'tuducs fruit. 






Giuvu . . 










Taraarind. 










Pomegraaale . 










K«An>i» . 


Venr fine, j 


Abundant, and promised to produce thniugh- 
out the y«ar ; wEighing frum 4 to 61b». 






Papa. Fig . . 


Ditto. 


In fruit at all MtaniDB. 






M.1™.. (.,» kind.) 


Ditto. 


Ripe ftoin Febniaiy to June. 






W.tu M.lou> . 


Ditto. 


Dillo during aine roonlhii of the year. 






P™iJdM . . 


Uood (uot large) 


Ditto from Decembtr to Auifust, 






V»m» . . . 


VeTgiXHl. 


FitforuiingiaJime. 






S«rt PotulMI 


Ditto. 


Oida all the year round. 






TV Common t^jta 
toe* . . . 


I Very bad. 


Could not be cultivated. 






Oaiuoi . . 


Good. 


Particularly the small white potatiwnion. 








Very bad. 


The lopi only coidd bo used. 






BrinpU . . 


Very ROud. 


Ri[H: from Uctobvi to March. 






Bcuu (viuieUia) 


Ditto. 


Ditto from November to Atarcb. 






Pb» . . . 


Bud. 


Did not grow well, and deitrojed by Temun. 






Cbbage . . 


VBiygood. 


Fit for uie in July. 








Ditto. 








Creu . . 


Ditto. 


Ditto during the rainy Boaaon. 






cXJ^m' ■ 


Ditto. 


la fruit during bik monthi of the year. 






Ditto. 


Liable to br d«troycd by puli». 






K-dive . . 


Dillo. 


In leuon from Decembtr lu May, 






Pw.l»y" . . 


Dirtu. 


Dillu from December to Aprd. 






B»(.^t . . 


Good. 


Grew large in garden mould. 






lUiUihn . 


Very good. 


In leasou in No». and Dec. ; hut did not Ked. 






New Zealonil Spi- 


1 Ditto. 


Ditto ditto, and throTB Well. 






Vegetabte Man^ 


Ditto. 


Ditto from February to June. 






AlTUW-tOOt 


Ditto. 


Ditto in July. 






QinK« . . 


Dillo. 


Ditto ditto. 






Si&<n> . . 


Dillu. 


Produced almul one pound to each root. 






Suf;«K«oe 


Rathet weak. 


IndiffL-renl, from want of an txperienceJ cul- 






Taxnxm . . 


Pretty Rood. 


Llivator. 






Cotton . . 


Shutt uaH coaree 


Produced three or four croni a year. 






IndiuiCom . 


Very fOudi 


Plontud ill N.JV., and rijie iu April or May. 






I shall next make a few remarks on tlie effect which the climate 


had upon our domestic live slock. 




The EDglish breed of cattle, when first landed upon Melville 




^^^ 


^ 



IGO Memoir fif MeleUte Inland and Port Esstnglan. 

Island died in great numbers; but those Mliicli survived, latteily 
turned out wtll, retiiaiiied liealthy, Ii3d beautiful sleek iiideii, aud 
reared fine calves. Tliey were herded on the borders of llie 
Bwuinps from ilajlight until sunset, wUen tliey returned to tlie 
stock-yard well-tilled, and gave excellent, sweet, well-llavoured 
milk. 

The bufl'aloes, introduced from Timor, herded separate from tlie 
English cattle ; nor could we get tliem to associate together. 
After being jirst landed, generally a third or fourth part died 
witliin the lirat fourteen days, from intlanimatiou of the bowels. 
This disease is brought on either by change of climate or some 
bad quality in the gruss. The appearance of the animal when 
taken ill, was drowsiness, lying down, swelling of the bowels; 
and di-aih ensued in live or six hours. We at first thought this 
disease was brought on by over-eating green grass, or drinking 
too much water, on being tirst landed from the ship; and this 
suggested the plan of keeping them in the stock-yaid for llic lirst 
week, feeding them on hay and green grass mixed, giving lliem 
but little water, and increasing the allowance of food daily. 
Many, however, died unrter this treatment; and others did not 
sur'ive long after being driven out to pasture at the expiration of 
the week. Ultimately, I built long roomy sheds, under which the 
bulValues were allowed to shelter dieinselves from the sun, from teu 
o'clock in the iiiuriiing until three in the afternoon; and as these 
animals delight in wallowing, like pigs, in mud holes and pools 
of water, I directed them to be driven to such places (both morn- 
ing and evening) as would enable them to enjoy this refreshnienl. 
This system, combined with caution in feeding diem for the Jlrst 
week after being landed, tended to diminish the deaths from one- 
third to one-tenth. 

Sheep did not thrive well, for although they increased tolerably, 
yet they never became fat or (it to he killed for food. From 1824 
until May 1828, only two of the New South Wales breed were 
killed at the settlement ; and neither weighed fifteen pounds. It 
is remarkable, that the sheep introduced from Sydney lived better 
on the island than those which were brought from Timor : ilie 
difference of latitude between that island and Melville Island is 
only one degree, yet, out of one hundred sheep landed at diflerent 
limes, not above live survived the tirst fortnight or three weeks. 

Goals, which are considered a hardy animal, died off even faster 
than sheep: out of about twenty, which were introduced in (he 
course of four years, from Timor, not one lived beyond twenty 
days, although carefully fed and confined in the stock-yard. 
Goats from Sydney lived better, as two only out of six died. 

Pigs did not thrive unless provided with plenty of grain and 
cooks' fat. The swamps, being too full of water, afforded no 



Memoir of Mehille Island and Port Emnf/lon. Ifil 

food J nutrilive roots were scarce, and earth worms were not met 
with. The roots and heart of the fan and sago palraa sometimes 
afforded a little subsistence, as did occasionally the young gprouis 
of the cabbage paint ; this was, however, but the precarious and 
scanty subsistence of such pigs as wandered (at the risk of being 
speared by the natives) lo a distance from the swamps and fort, 
llie government stock of pigs, amounting sometimes to 130 or 
140, were, in consequence of an insufficiency of grain, always 
poor and unfit for killing; and yci ihey wandered at liberty all 
daj: whereas those which were bouse-fed by private individuals 
were always fat, and afforded excelleut meat. 

Poultry did well during the dry season, and as long as a little 
Indian com or paddy (rice with the husk upon it] could be pro- 
cured : they, however, required great care in rearing, as the 
chickens were very subject to blindness during January. I-ebruary. 
and March; and the almost constant thunder, from October to 
April, frequently destroyed every young brood of chickens at the 
KttJement at the same hour. 

Towards the end of 1827, I had sufficient experience to form a 
more correct opinion of the advanlttges and disadvantagtis of Mel- 
ville Island, as a commercial station, than 1 had twelve months 
before. I also made myself acquainted with the places of resort 
of the Malays, and their period of approaching the coast of New 
Holland ; as well as aacerlaiuing the most desirable situation for 
1 settlement on the north coast. I represented to bis Excellency 
tlie Governor of New South Wales the disadvantages under 
which Melville Island laboured, and which appeared to me to 
counterbalance any argument that could possibly be olTered in its 
favour. 

Some of these objections were as follows. The approach to 
Apsley Strait was greatly obstructed by shoals ; it was out of any 
direct line of trade, and had never attracted the attention of the 
trader? of any nation whatever, not even the Malays, who annually 
came within thirty miles of the island, and within a hundred rnile^ 
of the settlement : this enterprising people avoided Alelville Island, 
both on account of their instructions from Macassar and their 
aversion to enter narrow straits where there are strong currents. 
The soil near the settlement was generally light, and difficult to 
bring into a stale for cultivation, and European labour 1 consi- 
dered inadequate to do justice to it. The climate was extremely 
debilitating, although not decidedly very unhealthy; and the 
constitutions of Europeans suffered much from its effects. In 
the course of twelve montlis, nearly every individual belonging to 
the establishment had been in hospital, and some of them three 
or four times. These combined circumstances, with several other 
obstacles, already mentioned in this memoir, were so much at 

VOL. IV. M 



m 



162 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essingtm 



e wilh the prosperity of a young settlement, and bad ope- 
rated so much against it for three years, that 1 felt cunvinced there 
was no chance of opening a commercial intercourse between 
Melville Island and the Indian Archipelago, either through the 
medium of native vessels or others. Thus, the main object of 
Government in forming an establishment in this part of the world, 
wilh a view of extending our commerce by introducing European 
manufactured goods more generally into demand throughout the 
Indian islands, was completely frustrated. 

From an impresfiion that Melville Island would be abandoned, 
I directed my attention more to the eastward, to that pari of the 
coast of New Holland to which the Malay fishing-proas resorted 
regularly every year. 1 visited the Cobourg Peninsula, aud sur- 
veyed Port Esaington, which latter place 1 found to possess many 
advantages over Port Cockburu. 



Port Essingfon is situated on the north side of the Cobourg 
Peninsula, which projects N.N.W. from the main land of Aus- 
tralia, and extends in ihai direction about fifty geographical miles. 
The greatest breadth is fifteen miles, and its narrowest part, where 
it is joined to the main by a neck of land of five miles in length, 
is two miles and a half across, from Mount Norris Bay, on the 
north-east, to Van Diemen's Gulf, on the south side of the 
peninsula. This gulf was discovered and so named by the Dutch 
navigators, in 1703. 

The port is Jii IT 6' south latitude, and in 13S° IS' 
east longitude. It was examined by Captain King in 1818, 
and named by him after Vice-Admiial Sir William Essingtou. 
Vashon-Head, Point Smith. Knocker's Bay, Middle-Head, Table- 
Head, and Saddle Hill, were names also given by Captain King; 
such other names as appear in the chart of my survey were giveu 
by me, generally from local circumstances. 

The approach to Port Essington is perfectly open and unob- 
structed by any danger whatever ; at its entrance it is seven miles 
wide, between Point Smith on the east side, and Vashon-Head 
on the west: the general direction of tlie port, which CKlends 
between seventeen and eighteen miles, is S.S.E. -^li., having 3 
depth of water throughout of nine, twelve, and live fathoms ; its 
average breadth is five miles, and at the southern end it forms 
three spacious harbours, each of them extending inwards three 
miles, with a width of about two ; the depth of water being 
five fathoms, with a bottom of stiff' mud and sand. These har- 
bours are sheltered from every wind, and would afibrd excellent 
and secure auchorage for vessels of any description, being per- 
fecllyfree from hidden danger; indeed, the whole port is a secure 



Afanoir of ^felviUe Island and Port Essingtor 



1G3 



place of anchorage for vessels of any size, and forms altogether 
one of ihe finest liarbours in the world. There is no harbour yet 
known (Port Jackson excepted) to be compared to it in the ivliole 
eiteol of Australia, and it may be entered in safety, as well during 
itie night as by day. It may be also approached at all seasons ; 
would be a convenient place of call for vessels proceeding from 
Sydney, through Torres Strait, to Java. Singapore, and India; 
and from its contiguity to Timor. New Guinea, Celebes, and the 
other islands of the Indian Archipelago, it is accessible to the 
Malay and Biigis' trading proas, as also the junks from China, 
in consequence of the regular monsoons, which extend many de- 
grees to the southward of Port Essington*. 

Thpre ace few dangers that I could observe in the whole extent 
of Ibis noble port, and certainly none but what are visible, and can 
be easily avoided. At tlie entrance, on the west side, there is a 
shoal encircling Vashon-Head ; it runs out about a mile, and is 
partially uncovered at low water; its outward edge is abrupt, 
and the water suddenly deepens from one fathom and a half to 
three, sis, and nine fathoms. Off Turtle Point, on the west side 
of (he port, there is & rocky islet and a circular reef which extends 
three-quarters of a mile from the shore; but on the opposite or 
east side of the port, the water is deep close to the shore. At 
half a mile VV.N.W. from Table-rock Head, there is a small rock 
which is uncovered at half-tide; but within twenty or thirty feel 
of it, tliere is live fathoms water. The next danger is between 
Table-rock Head and Malay Point ; here there is a range of 
rocks at one mile distance from the shore, which retires and 
forms a bay. These rocks bear south from Table-Head : there 
is a ripple upon them at high water, and at ebb-tide they are 
partly uncovered. From Oysler-Head, a reef (which is dry at low 
water) nins out in a northerly direction to the distance of half a 
mile. Off Spear Point, which is opposite to Malay Point, the 
water is shoal to the distance of nearly half a mile from the shore; 
but there is plenty of room for any vessel to pass, ^ith a depth of 
ten and twelve fathoms between that and Malay Point; and 
within twelve yards of the latter point, there is ten fathoms. This 
chanitel is the entrance into the two inner harb(»urs, of which 
Middle-Head forms the separation. Along the front of the 
projection wliich forms Middle-Head the water is shoal, and 
studded with small sharp-pointed rocks, running out to n quarter 
of a mile distant from the shore. There is a shoal, or rather a 
bank, off Mangrove Point, which is dry at low water, and a 
bar being formed between this bank and the opposite point to 

* Ths i-cDecal cnni^e of Ihe monwona Is tu twelve degriei fnim tlie eqimlor, htil it 
~ ~ '' nnBchEi to thirtdCD and foiiiteen deiffeei of south InUluili!. 

M 3 



I 



164 Alemoir of Melville Island and Port Essington, 

the westward, the bay beyond it (and which is in itself very shal- 
low) is of no use as an anchorage. 

1 have now enumerated all the dangers (if such they can be 
called) which I could distinguish ; and on reference to the plan 
of Port Essington^ it will appear obvious that none of them can 
seriously militate against this extensive port being one of the safest 
and finest in the world. 

The shores of this harbour present a pleasing variety of little 
bays and sandy beaches, alternating with bold cliffs and steep clay 
banks ; whilst inland, the continuous forest of trees, of rather a 
monotonous dark-green foliage, is occasionally relieved by small 
round hills, rising a hundred feet above the general elevation of 
the land ; which land, gently undulating, rises from one hun- 
dred to two hundred feet above the level of the sea, but in many 
places only from thirty to sixty feet. 

The cliffs, rising perpendicularly fifty or sixty feet from the 
water, are in some places of a dark-red colour and ferruginous 
nature, and in others of a dusky-white indurated clay. There is 
also a coarse-grained white sandstone, which I observed in Kan- 
garoo Bay, and on the west side of the inner harbour beyond 
Malay Point. 

Soil and Vegetable Productions. — In my several excursions on 
both sides of the port, I met with a variety of soil, and certainly 
that of an indifferent quality preponderated ; yet I observed many 
situations in which the soil was very good, principally on the low 
flats and hollows, and near places which were evidently swampy 
in wet weather. On the highest grounds near the shore, such as 
Table Rock, Observation Cliff, and Oyster Head, the land is 
rocky, with a shining rounded ironstone, of very weighty sub- 
stance, similar to that so general on Melville Island. The soil 
in which this stone abounds was found very detrimental to 
vegetation at the settlement of Fort Dundas, and we had not a 
sufiiciency of materials convenient enough to correct it ; but at 
Port £ssington, such materials as sea sand, salt-water mud, 
coral fo[ lime, are all abundant. On the moderately elevated 
land, as Curlew Point, Turtle Point, and behind Kangaroo 
Bay, there are comparatively few stones ; and the soil, although 
light, and mixed with a good deal of sand, nevertheless appeared 
productive. 

The vegetation around the port was abundant and very luxu- 
riant. The forest land is clear of underwood ; the lower grounds and 
hollows produce good grass (even in the middle of the dry season) ; 
and wide-spreading shrubs and flowers are there numerous. 
IVoni my experience at Melville Island, the climate of which is 
the same, and the soil similar to that around Port Essington 
(which latter possesses other superior local advantages)*-as also 



Memoir nf Melville Island and Port Essington, lG5 

from the manner I saw several tropical productions cuilivatcH on 
the Philippines, Java, Timor, and Singapore — I cnteriaiii a strong 
conviction that most, if not all, tropical productions could be 
brought to considerable perfection on the Cobourg Peninsula. 

Although the timber in the vicinity of the coast is generally not 
of great dimensions, yet the species are various, and of sufficient 
size fur house-building and agricultural purposes; and from the 
specimens of larger timber which I saw near Raffles' Bay (which 
is also on the Cobourg Peninsula), as well as from my intimate 
knowledge of the wood of Melville Island (in the same latitude, 
and with similar soil to Port Kssington). 1 am satisfied that tim- 
ber ia to be found near Port E&singlon lit for every purpose, 
iocludiHg household- furniture and boat and ship-building ; but 
I do not think there are good spars for ihe masts and yards of 
lai^e vessels. The irces on the high stony grounds around the 
port measure from fourteen to sixteen inches in the diameter of 
the trunk. On Malay Point, which is low, with a sandy soil, 
Ihe trees are of larger dimensions, and the trunk measures about 
twenty-six inches in diameter. The l£uca!yptus species are nunie' 
rous throughout; the hibiscus, casuarina, sago palm, fan palm, 
grass- tree, and cabbage palm, are also very conspicuous; as are 
hkenise runners and parasitical plants. 

From the circumstance of the soil, climate, and latitude being 
Dearly the same as those of Melville Island, and all the indigenous 
productions which 1 saw being similar, I conclude that the same 
species and varieties are conmion to both, and shall therefore refer 
to the list I have already given of indigenous productions in my 
account of Melville Island. For similar reasons, I likewise refer 
to the list of exotic productions which had been tried and suc- 
ceeded well at Fort Oundas. The latter will be a good criterion 
by which to estimate the productiveness of the soil of Port Essing- 
ton; particularly as, when I visited the settlement in Raffles' Bay, 
which is only thirteen miles east of the above port, I found all 
the plauts which I had sent from Melville Island to Captain 
Smyth, of the SQth regiment, (then commanding at Fort Welling- 
ton,) thriving well ; and in the second year from the establishment 
of that settlement in Raffles' Bay, the orange, lemon, shaddock, 
cocoa-uut, and tamarind trees, were succeeding very well indeed ; 
the pine-apple plants were strong and healthy, bananas were 
abundant, as were also pumpkins and sweet potatoes ; the sugar- 
cane, turmeric, arrow-root, capsicums, and other culinary vegeta- 
bles, were rapidly increasing: therefore, from these correspond- 
ing circumstances, any observations on the productions of Melville 
island may be considered as completely applicable to Port 
Essington. 

From the long continuance of dry weather in these latitudes 



I 



lf)6 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 

artificial vegetation suffers very much during six months in the 
year ; and, as at Fort Dundas, we had no streams of water from 
which we could irrigate the gardens and fields^ and the formation 
of tanks was not sanctioned, on account of the expense, our gar- 
dens produced very little indeed during the dry season : though 
by keeping a number of casks, and filling them with water daily 
from the wells, we in some measure counteracted the effects of 
the long drought. However, as there is much more water at Port 
Essington than was imagined, garden and field culture may rea- 
sonably be expected to be more satisfactory. 

Having mentioned three places where water was obtained, I 
have to add, that, besides them, I met with pools of drinkable 
water a little inland, behind the flat ground which in my plan I 
have named Native Companion Plain (the native companion — a 
species of araea — is a very large bird, which I saw in flocks there; 
they stood four feet in height ; plumage, blue-grey ; head, scarlet ; 
legs, long ; and the bill seven or eight inches in length) ; and, 
towards the end of the dry season, vegetation looked very fresh in 
the hollows and shaded places. Two otlier indications of water 
being in the neighbourhood of Port Essington, I may also men- 
tion ; the first is, that the natives are numerous around it and con- 
stantly seen there — they must require water. The second indi- 
cation is the great number of kangaroos I observed, which 
animal is generally in the neighbourhood of water and good pas- 
turage. 

Besides the indigenous vegetable productions enumerated in 
my list, I may mention, that a vine producing a small grape was 
met with at Raffles' Bay ; and some excellent roots, which I did 
not find on Melville Island, but which, at Port Essington, the 
natives use as food. 

Animal Kingdom, — Of land animals and birds I observed 
kangaroos, bandicoots, iguanas, pigeons, quail, curlew, native 
companions, wild geese, ducks, and swamp pheasants; besides 
great varieties of perroquets, cockatoos, hawks, herons, cranes, and 
gulls. The fishing-hawks were extremely audacious ; and fre- 
quently when, after hauling the seine, we left the fish we had 
caught piled together on the beach, and removed from fifty to a 
hundred yards off, to draw the net at a fresh place, these biids 
would dart down and invariably carry off' a fish : they were so 
daring, that I was at last obliged to leave a sentry to protect those 
we had taken. 

Port Essington is well stored with fish ; and from the numerous 
extensive sandy beaches around it, there is great facility in pro- 
curing abundant supplies with the seine. The Malay fishermen 
also catch very fine fish with a coarse pearl-shell hook and Hue. 
Amongst the fish we took there were mullet, cavallos^ bream. 



Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 167 

gar-tish, flounders, whitings, a kind of pike, wliite mackerel, 
sting-ray, a lish reaembliiig a herring, but fourteen or sixteen 
ioche* long, skip-jacks, old wives, and several others. Of shell- 
fisli there are, tlie common ojster, and the large mother-of-peaiU 
ibell oyster, green turtle*, spotted crabs, oysters, cockles, crayfish, 
couries, and various otiier small shell-tish ; and quantities of 
sponge. 

The large sea-slug called trepaug, or becke la mer, is very 
abundant all along the north coast from Endeavour Strait, in 
long. 142" 30' E., to Uiiudus Strait, between Melville Island 
and ttie Cobourg Peninsula, and attracts a large fleet of Malay 
proas during the months of December, January, February, March, 
and April ; their fishing-ground extending from the Gulf of 
Carpentaria to Dundas Strait. The principal part of these prods 
come from Macassar; they may measure from twenty to forty tons 
eacb, and are manned with from sixteen to thirty hands, and some- 
times as many as forty. Each proa is commanded by a chief 
(called a Nacodah), and to each of these vessels from three to five 
canoes are attached. The canoes are from eighteen to twenty- 
five feet long, hollowed out from the trunk of a tree. These 
proib are independent of each other, and the chief or master is not 
the owner, but merely acts for the proprietor, who resides at 
Macassar. He is not permitted to dispose of the trdpang during 
the voyage, but is obliged to return to Macassar with the whole 
produce of his fishing. In November they commence their 
fishing by going to the eastward through Uowen's Straii, gradually 
returning to the westward until April or May; when, having 
cured the tr^pang and completed their cargoes, they repair to 
the porta in the Indian Seas from whence they sailed. 

A Ir^pang curing establishment is formed every year in Port 
Kssington on Malay Point, and sometimes in Knocker's Bay. 
The buildings are of bamboo, nhicli the Malays bring along with 
them, and remove when they quit the coast. A description of 
these temporary erections, as well as the manner uf preparing 
the tr^pung for exportation, would unnecessarily lengthen this 
memoir ; 1 shall therefore not dwell upon it, and only give a 
diort description of the animal itself. 

The tr^pang is an animal resembling a snail in its form and 
■abslance ; it measures from eight to twelve inches in length ; is 
cylindrical, and about five inches and a half in girth; the two 
extremities are round, andwiihout close examination it is difficult 



* Tho tmile UTe gGnurallf of thu kind callnil grveti turtle ; bill it is probaiilo that 
Ihc baitlu-hill alw niilB on this rodil, as «ume 3i>eciiB«ns of tiirtle-ihell bronj^ht to 
Kn^ud by tlie wntei, (wblcti be receiieil fhtun thij itlaniiim iii Toitei .llnitii,} 
when weikeiJ up, adnulliid cf a high polish, and were liclily muked and tiam- 




l()S Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 

to decide which is the head (probably resembling in this respect a 
leech more than a snail). The mouth is transverse on the lower 
side of the head ; I did not observe the eyes (which must be very 
small), nor did I sufficiently note the other parts of its physical 
structure to venture on a more minute description. The lower 
part or belly is ftattish, and it did not appear to be furnished with 
any membrane so as to enable it to swim. They are generally 
found stationary amongst sea- weed, or on sand-flats in shoal 
waters. There are two kinds of tr^pang — the one of a darker 
blackish colour, the other a lighter or grey colour. The last is ten 
inches in length, and considered the best: the skin is rather 
roughish and tough ; it feels firm and stiff when taken out of the 
water, and the flesh is a mass of gelatinous substance. 

The name given to this coast and its native inhabitants by the 
Malays is * Marega.' They call Port Essington * Limboo Mou- 
tiara' (Port of Pearl-shell) ; and the Aborigines call the Malays 
'Mulwadies.' 

The Malays represent that they found the natives extremely 
troublesome and hostile all along the northern coast ; and they were 
glad when in Raffles Bay, at the time of our having a settlement 
there, they found themselves protected from the Indians, and were 
able to repair their vessels without being molested by them. 
Previous to our occupation of Raffles Bay they were accustomed 
to resort for these purposes to a small island outside, close to the 
west point of entrance into the bay. 

Climate, — The climate of the Cobourg Peninsula must be 
similar to that of Melville Island, therefore it will be unnecessary 
for me to dwell long upon it. I took a great deal of exercise 
there during all hours of the day, as did the whole of those along 
with me, amounting to thirty persons ; and none of us expe- 
rienced even a headach. Port Essington being more open to 
sea breezes^ and much freer from mangroves and mud-banks than 
Apsley Strait, the air must consequently be more pure, and less 
subject to that miasma ^hich frequently arises from mangrove 
banks. I found the temperature the same as at Fort Dundas ; 
and on comparing the account of sickness at Raffles ^Bay with that 
on Melville Island, I remarked that they had fewer varieties of 
complaints than we had, as also fewer cases of illness in comparison 
to their numbers : this I attribute to the air being less debilitating 
along the coast of the Cobourg Peninsula, and thereby rendering 
the human frame less susceptible of disease. 

In such a situation as Port Essington the mind is also more 
pleasingly exercised than in Apsley Strait, which I consider 
another great auxiliary to health. The settlement in Apsley 
Strait I may compare to an extensive penitentiary, shut out 
from the world, where a uniform and unvarying occupation em- 



Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 169 

ployed each individual A^y after day, month after month, and year 
aftef 3ear — a constant, tiresome sameness : an avoided place, 
uever enlivened by tlie face of a civilized stranger — excluded from 
all communication with llie world, excepting once in six months, 
when a colonial craft came from Port Jackson, with salt Junk, 
flour, and other supplies. And the view from this penitentiary (as 
it really may be called) was bounded all around by a broad impene- 
trable belt of mangroves, backed by a forest of trees that were 
never denuded of leaves, and which, iii place of being of a verdant 
green, were of an unchanging ever-greyish hue. Whereas at Port 
Essingtoo, its occupation by a well-organized colony would 
attract the attention of strangers ; and being a convenient place of 
call for vessels bound from Port Jackson to the Indian and China 
ieas, this, with the annual visits of the Malays, would create 
an interest, and be a constant source of action for the intellectual 
powers. From Port Essington the eye may wander as far as 
the human sight can be carried over a wide expanse of ocean 
(always a noble sight), or be directed inland, where it may rest ou 
Mime wooded knoll — be attracted by the graceful waving of the 
SrafoTtliia eUgans, or the numerous smokes rising and curling 
from amongst the trees, as they ascend from a native encampment, 
or from their burning the grass on bunting excursions. 

The meteorological table which I kept at Melville Island may 
be referred to as apphcable to Port Essington, as well as my re- 
marks ou the monsoons. In addition, however, I may observe that 
there are frequent sea and laud breezes along this coast, but by no 
means regular. The monsoons blow uniformly (from the south- 
east and the north-west, in their respective seasons) at forty miles 
from die coast ; and although in-shore, tbey generally blow in the 
name direction as the prevailing monsoon, yet they frequently 
vary, and appear, as already staled, as sea and land breezes. 

Tides and Currents. — The tides in Port Essington rise and 
fall about ten feet at the full and change of the moon: their 
velocity is inconsiderable, excepting off Malay Point, where, from 
ibe contraction of the channel, they run at the rale of from a mile 
and a half to two miles and a half an hour. The tides appeared to 
me firequenlly to influence the wind, as 1 found it after a calm to 
spring up and blow into the port with the Hood, and again either 
fall calm or blow out with the ebb. 

The currents in the open sea depend upon the monsoon — 
running to the westward with the south-east monsoon, and to the 
eastward with the north-west. Butin-shore they are influenced by 
the tide — setting to the south-west with the flood, and to the east 
or east-north-east with the ebb, running from a mile to two miles 
an hour. 

Natives. — The Aborigines around Port Essington and its vici- 



170 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington, 

nity are the same in appearance with those of Melville Island ; 
but their habits are somewhat distinct, and their weapons a little 
different. They both go naked, are alike addicted to pilfering, 
and display similar characteristics of cunning ; but I do not think 
the natives near Port Essington are so daring in their enterprises. 
I never saw a Melville islander with an ornament beyond a 
feather in the hair, scarifying the body, and bedaubing the head, 
face, and every part of the skin with yellow, white, or red pig- 
ments. But on the Cobourg Peninsula the natives have a fillet 
of net* work bound* round the waist, and another round the head 
and arms, with sometimes a necklace ; and they paint their bodies 
occasionally in the same manner as I have described in my account' 
of the natives of Melville Island. Such of their canoes as I saw 
were hollowed from the trunks of trees, like those of the Malays, 
and were probably either left by these people or stolen from them, 
for I do not think they have any means of hollowing them out 
themselves. 

Their weapons are spears and clubs : the spears are about ten 
feet long, and lighter than those of Melville Island ; and their war 
ones, named * Burreburai,' instead of being barbed like a fish-hook, 
as they are on Melville Island, are serrated like a saw. I should 
imagine fi-om their weight that they are thrown from the hand, 
vi'ithout the lever which is used near Sydney and King George's 
Sound ; but they are by no means so formidable as the Melville 
Island ones. Four of those of Port Essington fell on board a 
boat belonging to the brig Anne, but fortunately did no injury. 
They have others at Raffles Bay, called ^ Imburb^,' headed with 
stone ; and also a small sharp-pointed spear for killing fish ; — the 
clubs are rudely shaped, about four feet long and two inches in 
diameter. These natives wander about in certain districts, and 
subsist as those I have described in the second chapter ; but from 
the number of turtle-shells I observed scattered about in my 
excursions round the port, I imagine they are better supplied with 
that important article than their insular neighbours of Melville 
Island. 

I remarked one native burial-place at Port Essington : it was 
near Native Companion Plain. The grave was very simple, and 
placed under a widely-spreading tree. The space occupied was 
six feet long by three wide, over which was formed an open 
frame-work of twigs^ the ends being inserted in the ground 
on each side. Upon the grave lay a skull, evidently of an Abori- 
gine^ with a thigh or arm bone ; the scull was coloured red, 
as if with some dye^, and the teeth appeared as if they had been 
burnt. What I have related is all that came under my own 

* Probably a red ochre, which is common along the north coast, and gives to the 
argillaceous cliffii a ferrtiginous tinge. 



Memoir tt/Meieille Island and Port Essington. 171 

notice ; but as it may be interesting to some, 1 siiail conclude my 
observations regarding the natives on this coast by introducing an 
account given of them by a gentleniun who interested himself 
in Uieir character, manners, and habits, at Uaffles Bay (at which 
place they became very familiar) ; for the communication of 
«bicb I am indebted to Captain Stoddart, of the Royal Staff 
Corps: — 

" In personal appearance they bear some resemblance to the natives 
about Port Jackson r they are, howerer, belter made, and liave more 
inteliigent. and perhaps more savage connlenanees j they go entirely 
naked; their skin, jiarticularly the breast and thighs, is ornamented, 
or disfigured, with gashes ; their hair is long, and generally straight, 
jret I observed some crisp. Some of them have a fillet of net-work, 
■bout two or three inches wide, bound tightly round the waist, with a 
limilar ornament round the head and the arms, and sometimes a 
necklace of net-work depending some length down the back. Several 
of them have the front tooth in the upper jaw knocked out, in 
the manner described by Captain Collins. They paint their face, 
and sometimes the entire body, with red earth: and those who 
■Te ioclined to be dandies draw one or two longitudinal lines of 
white across the forehead, and three similar on each cheek ; while a 
few who appeared to be ' exquisites' had another line drawn from the 
forehead to the tip of the nose. The septum tutrium ia invariably 
per6Drated ; but it \a on particular occasions only that they introduce 
ibone or piece of wood through it, and sometimes a feather. In 
thia part of the coast the natives are divided Into three distinct 
classes — a circumstance quite unique. The first and highest class 
■re named ' MandrogiUics ;' the second ' Manburgbes ;' and the third 
' Mandro wiles.' The first class assume a superiority over the others, 
which is submitted to without reluctance ; and those who believe in 
real difference of blood amongst civilized nations might find here 
tome apparent ground for their belief: as the MandrogilUes Were 
observed to be naturally mure polite and unaffectedly easy in their 
manners than the others, who it was imagined were neither bo 
shrewd nor so refined. This, however, might be only imaginary. 

" Mariac (or Wellington, as he was named by Cautain Stirling), the 
drief of the country round Raffles Bay and Port tssington, is appa- 
rently about thirty years of age, and about five feet eight inches in 
height. His features are regular, and while he is in good humour, are 
placid aiid benign ; but on the least displeasure, which arose occa- 
rionally from slight causes, they glanced with savage fire. He has 
evidently much sway among his tribe, aa even 'Iniago' (another 
native) was observed to fall back by a look and word from his 
chief; though from his possessing a turn for fun and mimicry, 
and unrivalled dexterity in throwing the spear, he had become a 
favourite in the camp, to the great annoyance of Wellington, who 
seemed to view him in the same light that Haman did Mordecai. 
He gave Captain Barker to understand that presents to any of his 



p 




172 Memoir nfMehille Island and Port Essingfon. 

me through himself, and occssionally showed so 
deviations from this rule, that Captaiu Barker 
thought it prudent U> cut him for some time. He timpud in hb walk ; 
but whether from a wound received in foreign or domestic wars I 
did not learn. 

"The natives generally go in parties from sis to twelve; Wellington, 
lowever, went usually at some distance apart, aceompauied by only 
one. When the settlement was formed, his attendant was Jacama, 
a ' Manburgee,' called by Captaiu Stirling ' Waterloo.' After- 
wards Iniago had the honour of being his travelling compaoioD, but 
lost the office from the attention he received in the camp ; he waa 
succeeded by Olobs, a ' Mandrogillie,' and as timid as a hare. When 
we left the settlement, Monanoo, the younger brother of the chief of 
Crofcer Island, held this distinguished employment. It ts difficult to 
say whether they are accompanied in their excursions by their 
women, but it is probable that they are not. As far as we could 
learn, they never penetiate far into the interior, generally keeping 
along the shore, and occasionally cutting across any projecting point 
of land. Their food consists generally of fish, which they spear very 
dexterously. 

" Hunting turtle seems to be a favourite occupation with them, 
and they appear quite adepts in that, to them, useful art. They 
also make use of shell-fish, which it may be the business of the women 
to coUect. They do not use the tr^pang (so desired by Chinese 
epicures), which is in great abundance ail along the coast. They 
use as food various esculent roots ; and cabbage-palm affords an 
agreeable addition to their usual fare. They are also very fond of 
honey, which appears to be in abundance, as they were seldom seen 
in the settlement without a eupply of that article, and when they 
went into the woods on purpose to procure it, they soon returned 
successful. Their mode of proceeding was, to watch the movement 
of the bees, which requires a keen eye and long practice, and 
when they settled to cut the hive down. This operation with their 
atone hatchets was, although completed much quicker than could be 
imagined, tedious. It was fur this purpose that Waterloo ran away 
with an axe, after haviug seen and tried its use, rightly judging that 
it waa far preferable to their own. 

" Respecting the number of the natives, there were no means of 
forming anything like a correct opinion j yet, judging from the 
rapidity with which they collected on the occasion of one of them 
being confined for attempting to steal a canoe, it may be sup- 
posed tliat they are by no means thinly spread. On the occasion 
alluded to, two natives, who had observed ' Luga' confined, left 
the settlement, and spread the sad tidings. In the evening, 
* Wooloogarie' arrived, accompanied by fifty men at arms. The 
interview was friendly, Luga being punished and at liberty. From 
the time the two natives left until Wooloogarie's arrival was an 
interval of six hours ; they had to walk two or three miles, and cross 
and recross a atrait two miles wide ; they came in three canoes. It 




Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essingion. 173 

is difficult to know whether they \vou\A have acted hostilely had their 
friend not been released : perhaps they only came to intercede in his 
faroDr ; and, after the manner of other politicians, thought their re- 
quest might be better attended to by having a formidable appearance. 

" The only warlike weapons that they used, as far as we could 
learn, were spears, of different forms and sizes, the larg'est from 
nine to ten feet long — some serrated, and others headed with a sharp 
stone. They use the th rowing-stick named ' rogarooh,' which is 
exactly of the same form, and made in the same manner, as tliat in use 
amoD^ the natives of Port Jackson. 

'• We could not learn whether they were in the habit of GghtJnfjf 
with each other, or with neighbouring tribes ; but spear-wounds 
being by no means uncommon among them, it is probable that in this 
respect they also resemble their Australian brethren. It ia well 
kooirii that they wage continued war with the Malays, who appeared 
both to hate and fear them. 

" Although ic may appear rather paradoxical, yet I do not hesitate 
to aay, that these natives, far from being untameable savages as 
originally represented, are in reality a mild and merciful race of 
prople. They appear to be fond of their vives and children — at 
kut they talk of them ivith much appareot affection. Thty have 
frequently interposed their good office:^ ia preventing the children 
being chastised ; I have seen them run betwe<:n the mother and the 
diild, and beg the former to desist from her (as it appeared to them) 
nnnaxural conduct, in punishmg her own offspring. They are like all 
other uncivilized people, very irascible, but easily pacified: they 
icquire to be managed like children. That they may be taught 
to distinguish conventional right from wrong was quite apparent ; 
and many instances occurred that showed their aptitude in this 
respect. Iniago, after having become honest himself, once detected 
one of his companion.'* endeavouring to secrete a spoon, while they 
were about to partake of some rice prepared for them ; provoked by 
tius nngrutefui behaviour, he instantly took it from the delinquent 
and packed him off, ivithout permitting him to have any share of the 
fbod. On first visiting the settlement, a native would invariably 
;»lfer anything that came in his way that he could secrete ; which, 
bowever, was always brought back by those who knew that such con- 
duct was not countenanced by their civilized visiters : many instances 
of this kind occurred. They also soon learned to distinguish between 
a person whose word was to be depended on, and another of no 
veracity. 

*■ The chief objects of their desire were tomahawks, large nails, and 
iron hoops ; but in the progress of time they took a fancy for various 
articles of dress — a sliirt was a great object for them to obtain ; and 
Ibey became so particular, that if a button was wanting in the collar 
or sleeve, they were not satisfied until the deficiency was remedied. 
A coloured handkerchief was also much prized, which they used 
to roll neatly round the head. 

" After they became somewhat polished in their manners, if they 



I 



f^ 



Memoir of Melville Island and Port Bttn^ton. 



174 

saw anything tliBt struck their fancy, they asked for it ; if 
them, they showed no visilile murks of thankfulness ; and if 
denied them, they laid it quietly down. 'Some time Itefore we 
coast, they could be trusted implicitly, even with those article* 
most highly prized. It may be justly presumed, that living 
do agreeably to aature, tliey are subject to fewer disei 
man in a civilised state. However, that they are Dot all 
exempt from the ills attending animal existence, was very < 
* Duiinf; the inclement and wet weather, at the coiniD en cement 
year,' observed Dr. Davis, ' a party of the Aborigines 
labouring under acute bronchitia, on a low neck of land ni 
western boundary of RafBes Bay. The symptoms were vety 
During the continuance of the disease they were very abs 
The only remedies which we saw them employ were (dui 
severity of the acute stage of the disease) cords tied very 
round their head, and the frequent pouring of cold water oR . 
beads. On one occasion the chief (Mariac, or Wellingtoityt 
down on the sand, and caused one of his tribe to stand on hii ' " 
most probably for the purpose of deadening the acute pain 
suffering. Several of these people have deep circular impres! ' 
iheir faces in particular, as if caused by the sniall-{XHc. ¥ 
want of making myself understood, the nature of the disease 
produced these marks was not ascertained, 

'> The natives described in language, or rather by sig-ns, ' soft- 
ciently significant,' the history nf this malady, which they call'Oi* 
boie,' and whicii seems to be very prevalent among them. It evi- 
dently bears a resemblance, both in its symptoms and coiirteqnenaii> 
to small-pox, being an eruptive disease (attBnde<l with fever) leavlDf 
impressions: it frequently destroys the eyes. ! observed more tha 
one iMitive with this mark. I could not learn whether thev used mj 
remedy except abstinence. Tliey are also subject to ophthalmia. 

" Whether they have any ide& of a Superior Ueing, or uf a future staU 
of existence, it was impossible for us to ascertain. It was easy eiioeth 
to exchange communication as far as regarded objects evident to M 
external senses ; but, a-s may be easily imagined by those convenaal 
on the subject, any attempt to talk of abstract principles must ban 
proved altogether fruitless and vuin. When it is called to mind tbX 
the natives were just beginning to lay aside suspicion, and to rait 
the settlement without fear, nut long before it was abandoned, it vffl 
not seem strange that these particulars relating to them are 90 BCMIf 
and imperfect. 

" It is 3 curious circumstance that the natives inhabiting difleruil 
jparts of New Holland, although in foim, manner, mode of lift, drf 
implements of war, they have a striking resemblance, should posseM 
Aot the least affinity in language. The dialect of this part of At 
const is by no means inharmonious ; there is an evident difFerenoe in 
pronunciation betvveen the different classes. It is also difiicutt to 
obtain the true sound of their words, as it frequently happened IlMI 



If (the 



sound not being caught at first) the word was repeat 




Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington. 



aly aa we could guess, 

rough mdillercnce or 

^obviate thin apaMiy or t 



they immediately adopted our mode, 
(^omplaisaoce ; and it required some 



Raffiea Bay is in the same parallel with Port Essington, and 
ditrteen mile? east of it. It was named by Captain King, in 
1818. The latitude is 11" 12'.'!0"S. and the longitude 132° 26' E. 
It 1:1 of a circular form^ the diameter being about three miles. 
The bay is very shallow, having iinly from three to four fathoms 
Vftter ; luid along the whole of its eastern side it is shoal to the 
diftaoce of three-quarters of a mile from the shore, having «t low 
wMer about a fathom at that distance ; on the western side the 
aaler is deeper, the shore having steep banks ; on the eastern side 
tfce shore Ja very low, with mud-banks in front of it. There is 
a great deal of mangrove around Raffles Bay ; the land is 
itouiBr to that of Port Essinglon, but not quite so elevated ; and 
6om the circumscribed dimensions of the bay, its shores are not 
» mucb refreshed by the sea breezes as those of the neighbouring 
port. The entrance to the bay is a mile and a half wide, and 
eis; of access : but there is a sunken reef three utiles north of 
the entrance, and two miles distant from the western shore. The 
Teasel in which I was touched upon it when going out of 
Raffles Bay ; this reef, therefore, demands caution from vessels 
gaitig out or in. The entrance is also a little concealed by 
Croker's Island (for vessels approaching from tlie eastward), and 
cannot be discovered by ships coming from the west until that 
aland is approached within two miles. 

The land round the settlement is low, but dry and well- 
wooded ; there is no mangrove close to it (although there is 
much of this along the southern side) ; and there is a long, 
open sandy beach in front, where there is good fishing with the 
leiiie. The soil is similar to what I have described in Port 
Eninglonand Melville Island. 

There were no traces of the Malays in Raffles Bay when I 
nriled it, but afteraards they made their appearance. Two or 
ihree proas were induced to enter, and had some repairs done to 
Ifietn; whilst many others, not knowing there was a British settle- 
ment in that port, passed within sight, on their way to Bowen's 
Strait. The following year, however, (1823) many more ventured, 
glad, of being under protection lof the British, as their dread 
of the natives had formerly always deterred them from landing iu 
Raffles Bay. Sometimes, during the north-west monsoon, ten 
or twelve proas have been seen passing in the course of a day, 
cntettRg Bowen's Strait. 

The objects of natural history being the same as at the two 
former places, I shall pass them over in silence. 



I 



1 76 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Esainglon. 

The climale is also ihe same ; but the locality being drier, 
freer from swamps and mangroves, and more open to the sea 
breezes, was not so injurious to health as tliat of Melville Island. 
When the serious attack of scurvy {which I before mentioned) 
had subsided, the settlement continued tolerably healthy until it 
was given up. It was only retained two years; the population 
was generally about seventy, and seven or eight deaths took place- 
It is probable there would have been more, had not fourteen very 
bad cases been removed from it in November, 1827, aud a few 
others in May, IS28. Scurvy and ophthalmia were the prevailing 
diseases, but i cannot take upon myself to say what others ap- 
peared. 

With respect to the management of live stock at Fort Welling- 
ton, I did uot hear that the buffaloes sufiered so much after heini; 
imported, as they did at Diindas; and ilie pigs fattened well by 
feeding on roots which tliey found in and about the swanipy 
g(ound. The marshy llats near Fort Wellington were dry during 
part of the south-east monsoon, and never very deep, so that the 
pigs could easily grub throughout them ; but on Melville Island 
llie marshes were several feet deep, and uever dry ; there, accord- 
ingly, the pigs were only fat when house-fed. 

Both RatHes Mny and Melville Island were abandoned in the 
same year (1821)); and I shall conclude this memoir by offering 
a few remarks on the occupation of the northern coast of Aus- 
traha. At present {1834), that part of the territory of this exten- 
sive continent extending from Morton Bay on the east coast, lo 
Swan River on the west, and embracing all that part of Australia 
to the northward of twenty-five degrees of south latitude, is not 
only without any single point of it being occupied, but a great 
part of its coast (to say nothing of the interior) still remains to be 
surveyed. This line of coast, measuring an extent of upwards of 
three thousand one hundred miles (if reduced to a straight line), 
possesses no good harbour (as far as has yet been asertained), with 
the exception of that admirable one I have described on the Co- 
bourg Peninsula. This port is a central situation on the extent 
of coast alluded to; it is the most prominent part of that coast, 
and the most northern point of Australia (Cape York excepted, 
which is in latitude 10° 37' south). The coast lo the westward of 
it, as far as SO" south, and even farther, is a dangerous and inhos- 
pitable one, on account of the numerous islands, reefs, and shoals 
which lie along it, with extraordinary and perplexing currents 
running amongst them ; whilst the coast to the eastward, as far 
as Endeavour Strait, aliiiough probably more safely approachable, 
yet presents no harbour of consequence ; and if it did, tliey 
would be too far to the eastward to be conveniently situated for 
commencing a trade with the eastern seas. 



Memoir o/MelviUe Island and Port E^singlon. 177 

Port Essington is as (he rneiiilly hand of Australia, strelclicd 
out towards the nortli, openly inviting the scattered islanders of 
tfae Javanese, Malayan, Celebean, and Chinese seas, to lake 
tbt:lter and rest in ils secure, extensise. and placid harbour; where 
tliej may deposit the productions of their native inter- tropical Jsles, 
and receive in exchange the more improved inanufacturea of the 
nstives of the temperate zone. If settled by some civilised nation, 
and well provided with such European goods as are known to be 
in great demand by the inhabiiants of the eastern seas, it would 
soon atti-act their attention. The Bugis from Celebes, and the 
traders of other islands in those seas, at present resort to Soura- 
baya, Penang, Singapore, Delhi, and Coipang Timor, for such 
articles of tiupply as are required throughout the Archipelago. 
They make a trading voyage both going to and returning from 
these place;*, touching at the different islands on tlicir way in the 
central and easlcni part of the Archipelago— such as Mandar, 
Kaili, Macassar, Itonirati, New Guinea, Timor, Cerain, Sandal- 
wood, Fiores, Bal^, Borneo, and many others. They pick itp the 
produce of those islands, as also the produce of the fisheries on the 
coast of New Uolland, and exchange them at tfae Dutch, linglisli, 
and Portuguese colonies, for European goods. The exports of tri- 
paug, from Macassar, for the China market, according tu Mr. Craw- 
ford's calculation, amount annually to seven thousand peculs* ; 
and sell at from twenty to one hundred and twenty dollars a pecul. 
Of pearl shell, according to the same author, there is exported 
annually to China, via Singapore, five thousand pecnls, at four- 
teen dollars a pecul. Tortuise-shcU, cowries, and shark-fins, also 
Mil) well in China ; ihe latter selling at thirty-two dollars a huii- 
drtwi weight. The tortoise-shell alone which was brought to 
Singapore by the Bugis iu one year (1826), and sent from thence 
to England, amounted to sixteen thousand pounds weight: the 
bark of two species of mangrove also sells well in China. 

I have particularised those articles in order to show how valu- 
able a part of the trafKckable commodities of the Bugis traders is 
to be found on the northern coast of Australia and iu neighbour- 
ing eeas. The sea around the island of Timor, and as far soutli 
as latitude 'i6'', abounds with the spermaceti whale ; and the 
whalers employed in that tishery, and on the north coast of New 
Guinea, at present resort to Delhi and Coipang for supplies and 
refresbmenl. According to Mr. Crawford's account, there are 
32,OUU tons of shipping, and 3200 seamen, employed iu this 
fishery. Now, so tine and convenient a harbour as that of Port 
Essiugton would certainly be a most desirable place of rendezvous 
for these whalers, particularly during a time of war. 

* A pecul is 130 puuuds weight. 



I 



178 Memoir of Melvilh Island and Port Essington. 

At present, a great many vessels go from Port Jackson to Ma- 
nilla, Singapore, and Sourabaya, in search of cargoes for the 
European market, and load their ships with Chinese goods and 
the produce of the Indian islands, deposited at Singapore and 
Sourabaya by the Bugis and other traders of the Archipelago. 
The articles brought from the Indian islands (many of which 
are exported to Europe) are cloves, nutmegs, mace, pepper, rice, 
cotton, oil, indigo, tamarinds, betel-nut, gambier, antimony, 
cassia, ratans, dragon's blood, cane, sapan-wood, turmeric, mother- 
of-pearl shell, tortoise-shells, sandal-wood, ebony, sago, bees-wax 
and honey, benzoin, ivory, camphor, benjamin, birds of Paradise 
from New Guinea and islands near it, striped and tartan cotton 
cloths from Celebes, gold dust and gold and silver bullion, and 
many other articles. 

For the China market, particularly, they bring tripang, tor- 
toise-shell, mother-of-pearl, shark-fins, birds'-nests, mangrove 
bark, eagle-wood, hides, and a sea- weed called agar-a-gar. 
The European commodities which are exported in return, for the 
supply of the central and easternmost islands of the Archipelago, 
consist of chintzes, cambrics, printed and white cottons, gaudy- 
coloured handkerchiefs, bandanas, velvets, broadcloths, iron and 
steel (both un wrought and manufactured), iire-arms and gun- 
powder, earthenware, and glass. 

If a depot of these articles was established in a convenient place 
on the north coast of New Holland, such as Port Essington, 
the Bugis traders would there find it easy to dispose of their car- 
goes in exchange for the commodities they require ; and as the 
distance from Celebes to the Cobourg Peninsula is only about 
760 miles — whereas the distance from that island to Singapore 
is 1200 miles — it would appear to me to be more convenient 
for them to resort to Port Essington, than either to Java or the 
Straits of Malacca ; and likewise, by the distance being much 
shorter, they might be enabled to supply the purchasers of their 
European commodities at a more reasonable rate than they do at 
present. The cost just now to the consumer is from 150 to 200 
per cent, on the prime cost. The Macassar fishermen who came 
to the coast of New Holland, said, that Macassar was badly sup- 
plied with the necessary marketable articles ; and what could be 
procured were sold at exorbitant prices. 

As the maritime undertakings of the inhabitants of the Archi- 
pelago never extend beyond the influence of the periodical 
winds, and they are averse to venturing far from land, Port 
Essington is the only port of New Holland that they can be ex- 
pected to carry on a traffic with. The Chinese proceed on a 
similar principle ; and as, by the regularity of the monsoons, their 
junks come to Macassar^ Coipang, Timor, and Sourabaya, it 




Memoir of Melville Inland and Port Essingtm. 1 79 

may be reasonably expected, that, with the certainty of tinding a 
market, they would venture also a few hundred miles further, and 
vtould prefer a British port to either Dutch or Portuguese. The 
Cbioese junks reach the coast uf Java, from Canton (a distance of 
1800 miles), in fifteen days ; the distance from the centre of the 
north coast of Java, ur atjout Samarang to Port Kssinglon, is 600 
miles; so, with the same rate of sailing, they could reach Port 
Etsington in five days more ; and they would have a fair wind all 
the way — ibe north-east wind blowing in the China seas, and the 
Dorth-west wind prevailing to the south of tlie equator at the same 
season, that is, from November to April. Several Chinese junks 
trade to Macassar, and I should imagine that their owners would be 
glad lo send them five or six days further sail to Port Essingtoii, 
provided tboy could there find an exchangeable medium for the 
productions of China and be supplied with European goods. 

Hanng thus shown the advantageous position of Fort Kssing- 
lon, with respect to the Indian Archipelago, in a commercial 
pcHut of vieWj and stated that a great many ships go from Port 
Jickaon to look for cargoes at Manilla, Singapore, and the ports 
of Java, oil their way to the two latter places, frequently passing 
ihrDUgli Torres' Strait and within a very short distance of Port 
Essiugton (probably thirty or forty miles) — may it not be pre- 
wmed, that if the scattered productions of the Archipelago and 
China were concentrated and deposited in Port Essington, as they 
are now at Singapore, that it would be a great advantage for 
our ships to proceed there for cargoes, and thereby save muck 
time in iheir return to Europe, avoiding the lengthened voyage, 
and shortening their return home by 1700 or 3600 miles?* 
The staple produce of Timor, within a few days' sail of Port 
Essington, would most probably flow into it, as exchangeable 
articles: consisting of bees-wax and honey, rice and Indian corn, 
sandal-wood, and copper. I, however, do not know that copper 
is exported from Timor, but it is found there. 

Vessels sailing from Port Jackson can pass through Torres' 
Strait during the months of May, J une, J uly, August, and Sep- 
tember ; but during the rest of the year, hazy weather and contrary 
winds render that passage impracticable. Vessels approaching 
Port Essington from the westward should pass through the Straits 
of Satnoo, by which the shoal towards the west end of the Great 
Sahul Bank is avoided. This approach is open at all times of 
the year, although, of course, the run from the Straits of Samoo 
to the Cobourg Peninsula may be accomplished in three days 

• Sioeapiini ii fourteen Jejtn'Bs moif to the northward thiiu Purl Eimiuglon ; and 
Ihr oortli port of Luconiii, round wlikh sliips generallj' f(U lo Manilla from Port 
JicU>ii,u Ihirty dcgrerti mow lo the northward; whicli will occuuot for Uie difftr- 
mee ef dislaiu-i: alluiled lo. 



180 Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essingfon. 

during the nortli-west monsoon, and will take seven or eight days 
during the opposite monsoon. 

A second advantage which would arise from the occupation of 
Port Essington would be the facility it would afford, from its 
central situation, to any future minute survey of the coast to the 
westward and eastward, as also for exploring the interior of this 
extraordinary country, from the north ; thereby adding to our 
geographical knowledge, and probably opening a new field in the 
science of natural histoiy. 

From its contiguity to New Guinea (which island is only 
540 miles distant), it might possibly, at no very distant period, 
carry on a lucrative trade with it also. As its barbarous people 
become civilized, they will require clothing, utensils, and every 
manufactured article in use by their more cultivated neighbours of 
the islands to the west of them ; and the satisfaction of intro- 
ducing the arts and comforts of civilized nations amongst these 
unenlightened people, as also amongst the islands to the south- 
east of New Guinea — as New Ireland, New Britain, Solomon's 
Isles, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia — will devolve upon 
whatever nation establishes a well-appointed settlement on the 
northern coasts of Australia. There are some tine islands also in 
Torres' Strait, where some small establishments for fishing and 
taking turtle might be detached from the principal depot ; and 
they might contribute materially towards facilitating the safer 
passage of ships through those straits, the approach to which is 
attended with much danger, and demands great caution. 

In a military point of view, Port Essington also possesses 
advantages : it commands the passage from the South Seas, 
through Torres' Strait, to the Indian Ocean ; it would be a ren- 
dezvous in time of war for all vessels trading in the Indian Archi- 
pelago ; it would be a place of refreshment for our ships of war, 
on their way from Port Jackson to India between May and Octo- 
ber, and a place of call for vessels conveying troops to India from 
Sydney during the same season. It would also be a rendezvous 
for our whalers in the Timor Seas and amongst the Polynesian 
Isles; and would ultimately become the capital of Northern 
Australia. Its locality is well adapted for the construction of 
defensive works, and a few would suffice for the protection of the 
entrance. 

If Port Essington should ever be settled, it must eventually 
carry on a commercial intercourse with Asia, China, and the 
intermediate islands ; and if agriculture is carried on in the 
Cobourg Peninsula, as it would be, provided the Chinese and 
Malays were encouraged to settle there, its productions being 
different from those of Europe, would afford other exchangeable 
media for its manufactures and productions. 



Memoir of Melville Inland and Port Essingtott. ] S 1 

When I was in ihe Timor and Javanese seas, in 1829, I heard 
of several inslancea of quarrels having taken place between the 
Indian Islanders and the masters of sniall European traders, as 
also tlie misconduct of some of those captains of vessels, in their 
inlercuurse with the islands of the Archipelago: these misunder- 
standings arising generally from the European trader not being 
acquainted with the customs of llie Islanders in their modes of 
barter or sale. Such occurrences as these also tend to conlirm 
jne in a belief that a more protitable intercourse would be carried 
(HI with the Indian islands if a central dcpdt was established, and 
the intermediate intercourse carried on between tliis depot and the 
islands by the native traders themselves. 

In conclusion, I shall introduce an extract from Mr. Crawford's 
excellent work on the Indian Archipelago ; and this gentleman 
was most intimately acquainted with the resources and habits of 
those islanders, as well as with the productions and the manner 
of trading in the islands : — 

"In order to carry on an extensive intercourse with the Indian 
iilands, a colonial establishment becomes the only means of effecting 
this object. Such a colony should be situated in the direct route 
l«tween the most civilized tribes of the Archipelago, and in the track 
of the navigation between the great nations of the East and West, 
The harbour should be good, and the land fertile: a free trade, 
liberal administration, and such a. degree of regular government as 
would ensure security of persons and property, will inevitably ensure 
1 large share of success. 

" There ought to exist the most unbounded freedom of commerce 
and settlement to persons of all nations and religions ; and a pure and 
impartial administration of a code of laws, suited to the state of such 
a colony, and adapted to the peculiar character of its varied popula- 
tion, should form the moat important branches of the administration. 
A moderate impost on external commerce — which that commerce 
well protected should certainly afford^ — with the sale of public lands, 
and an excise on vicious luxury, would atTord a sufhcient revenue to 
defray the expenses of government and the charge of public works. 

*' Such an establishment would become a great emporium ; the 
native trader nould find it the best and safest market to repair to; 
and the scattered productions of the Archipelago would be accumu- 
lated and stored in it for the convenience of the distant and inex- 
perienced trader of Europe, The European voyager would fmd it the 
test market for his goods, and the sacrifice of a great nominal profit 
would be compensated by the cNpedition with which his business 
would he dispatched, and an immunity from those dangers and risks 
to which inexperience must necessarily commit him, in a direct inter- 
course with the natives." 



VIL — Extractaffom a Spanuk MS. t/kine an Account o/trrlaa 

ErpedUion* underlakm by Order of the King of Spam, hr- 

/irrent/ie Yeart i7-Vj und \Ti6, and of the EttiiMUhmadf^i 

CiiUmy on the Island of Juan Fernandez. Commuiucaied hj 

Woodbine Parish, Esq., F.R.S. Read 9lli June, 1834. 

Til r. notice which has iip|>eared in tlie March Number of ik 

bullvttns of the French Geographical Society respecting avoy^ 

performed in 1774 by the Spanish ship Jupiter has indured IM 

l« bfilieve that some fiirlher account of the history of ibai vora^t 

and of some other undertakings by the Spaniards iii prwioM 

year*, to make themselves better acquainted with the goutlvni 

ahntr.it of the I'aciiic, may be worth recording, tending, as dK7 

do, to compluti: the chain of our historical noiiccB of tha voyagia 

of discovery in those seas, and affording, iihat cannot but be 

interesting to us in a national point of view, a striking etidvttct 

of the cA'ects produced upon other nations by tlie eiiterpristif 

ij>irit of our own navigators. 

The Spnnianis were not allogetiicrso indifferent to Uie progttw 
of maritiiiie discovery in the last ceulury as has been gcnenli; 
believed. Alarms for llieir own interests did occasionally rowc 
them, and, as will be seen, the publication of the voyages of oat 
own great navigators stimulated them to e.iertiona of which, liH 
now, «c have been in ignorance. 

The histoiy of some of chose alarms, and of the measun> 
wbicli followed them, is given in the following passages estractrd 
from u MS, n'port in my nossession, drawn up by Don Manuel 
de Aniui, the \ iceroy of Luna, for llie infonuatiou and guidance 
of hia succesaar in iliat guvcroment, iu 1776. In an abstnu;lly 
geographical sense Uiey perhaps contain nothing new to us ; but, 
K* 1 have above slated, i thinL there arc other grounds on whiii 
Ihcv uiny be deemed to bo of interest. 

Cook, on Ins last voyage, found ttacea of ibc visita of ifce 
S|>anianls IttOtaheilc; and IJie accuracy of his account of ibaiBiai 
far as it ^oes, is strikingly corroboratnl by tfae Viceroy's narrnhc^ 
In point of date, (lie first proceedings of the Spaniank <i 
which like Viceroy makes mention, mayb« ^^fe^^ed to Comniod«e 
Aaaon** Toyaj;c, the account of wfaicb appeared in I74S. He 

*' By coHnunkalioiu from the Court dated in >Uy 17-H), wc 
were <oa6(katiaUy appiiwd that the Bribsb GovenuDeiU jnd- 
jaded ronunf a wtUeiaent eitber ou tbc ulaod m' Jwui ta- 
Modn, or in Ac archipelago of C1khw&, u cuDW)|tte»cc of llw 
n|Ki«ts OMde by CouuDoJote Ansoa ou bis relani Cnm those mm 
of the preat Mdvaatam wludt aught b« expected frooi rach aa 
v^ablubnMNtt The king, wfraM^ aim to ibc cvKeqoences of 
sAcb a pn^ed on ibe part uf dM Eagteb, and sMMg how detranenlBl 



tSpanisA Foyaijcs. 183 

it might prove to the peace and quiet of his majesty's dominions 
ill ihese parts, desired that a ship-of-war should be immediately 
despatched to examine the said islands, as well as all llie coasts 
to the southward, with orders to expel any foreign ship whatever 
which might be met w^tli in any of the ports or possessions of 
his majesty in these seas. His majesty commanded tliat the 
ialaod of Juan Fernandez should be peopled, and a suitable 
^rrison immediately established there for its protection ; and that 
further the archipelago of Chonos should be also carefully 
examined, and a survey made of all ttie ports and harbours found 
there; and that at the island of Inchin, described in Anson's 
voyage, a fort should be built and a garrison established sufficient 
to prevent any other occupation of it. 

" In proceeding to inform your Excellency how these orders 
were executed, 1 ahall commence with the islands of — 

*' Jnan Femandex. — These islands are two : the one called by 
■IS de tierra, generally known as Juan Fernandez, in 34" latitude, 
may be six or seven leagues in extent ; the other is called mas h 
ftmra, and lies about iwenty'tive leagues from the former in the 
sanie latitude. The first is convenient enough, and capable of 
subsisting a small popiilalioii, although the extent of the lands fit 
for cultivatioQ is inconsiderable ; but tnos a fuera is but a heap 
of rocks, where it is difficult to land, and still more so to fmd 
means of subststence : there is, however, a great abundance of 
lish, especially of cod, which might prove a very valuable fishery 
to us, if our people would employ themselves in it. 

"No lime was lost in establishing a settlement on Juan Fer- 
nandez, conformably with the king's orders: besides the garriion, 
consisting of a company of infantry and the necessary staff, with 
iwentj-two prisoners condemned to hard labour to assist in the ~ 
works, ] 7 1 persons of both sexes, and of various ages and occu- 
pations, were safely landed, with cattle, mules, sheep, and a variety 
of poultry of all sorts, as well as a suitable supply of seeds and 
agricultural implements: eighteen guns were also sent for the 
fort. But tliis little colony had not long been settled when it was 
almost totally destroyed by the same dreadful earlli<iuake which 
io the year 1 75 1 overthrew the city of Conception in Chili : with 
the earthquake the sea rose, and overwhelmed the houses, most of 
which had unfortunately been built upon the sea-shore : thirty- 
five persons perished from this calamitous event, and amongst 
Ibem the Governor with his wife and all his children. The Pre- 
sident of Chili sent such relief as he could to remedy this disaster, 
and the settlement was rebuilt by my orders in a more convenient 
and safe position, further removed from the sea, under the super- 
intendence of Uon Manuel de Castel-blanco. 

'* On the rupture with England, in 1702, the President of Chili 



i 



184 Spanish Voyages. 

would liave uithdrawn the garrison and broken up the settlement 
had 1 permitted it ; but I considered it our duty rather to reinforce 
it with an additional company of infantry uiid such a supply of 
ammunition as would enable it to make a rigorous defence if 
necessary, of all which the king was pleased highly to approve. 
I was guided in this by recollecting the extreme distress in which 
Commodore Ansun reached those islands ; and that, destitute as 
he was of all succour, and his crews utterly helpless and reduced 
by sickness, he must have surrendered to any force we might have 
had there at the time ; whereas from the want of such a force on 
our part, he was able to refit his ships and restore his invalids, so 
as afterwards to do the greatest injury to our interests in those 
parts — reasons, it appeared to me, suflicient to show the impolicy 
on our part of abandoning such a position. 

" The expense of the settlement to the king, according to tlic 
estimates for the year 1753, was about 12,fi40 dollars.* 

" The ATchipelatjo of Chonaa was ejtamined as caiefully as 
possible, in obedience to the same orders from his majesty. 

" This group of islands lies in 45° and 4(i° of latitude, between 
the isles of Chiloe and Cape Tres Montes : from the circum- 
stance of the Anna pink having been driven in, and having found 
shelter and refreshment there, Anson has given some stccount of 
this archipelago, wLicli he considers would be a convenient position 
for a settlement, especially the island of Inchin : but our people, 
sent to examine the said islands, and who remained there some 
time, after a careful survey, especially of Anson's Inchin, were 
entirely satisfied that they might be safely abandoned, as holding 
out no inducement whatever to any foreign nation to settle there, 
being entirely barren, frigid, and uninhabitable. The island of 
Inchin is known to Uie sailors on the coast of Chili by the name 
of Tequegen, and is occasionally frequented by the Indians of the 
neighbouring continent for the fi^h taken diere : the English 
seized one of the boats of these Indian lishermeu, and on asking 

* CartPiet nppenn to have beta the first of our Davigalon who nnticeil this wUlv- 
pent. HBEivcB the following sccouEt oT it :— " lOth of Mny, IJU?. W8 made the 
iiland at' Juaa Fetauiilei. Ai I did UDl knuw thatths S|isuutrda had furlified thia 
iiland, I was greutly aurpiiiod to im a conaideiable number of meu uboiit the bench, 
with B house and fuiir fiecn of cannon nvur the walei kide, aud a foit about 300 
yuili further from Ihf ana, juht upon the tiding of a hill, with Spanish coloun flyio); 
upou the top of it. The I'ott, wliicb ia fated wilh atone, hna eighletn or (wenly 
cmbruuiut, and nilhin it a long houie which 1 nippoied to be batiack* fur the 
gaiiiian. Twenty-five or thirty house* of difiereut kinds are scattered round it, 
and we aaw much cattle feediD); on the brow of the hills, vhich neemed to he culti- 
vated, aa many spots were divideil by eitdusuiea from each other." 1 hoisted po 
Colaurs, having none but English on board, which at this time 1 did not Ihink proper 
lo (how. As 1 was disappointed of wooil and wati't at this place, and of the lefmlt- 
inents, of which, nfler the danguih and fatigue of our voyage lhruu);h the IStiaila, and 
our passage IVuni it, we stood in the moK ptensing need, I made all the sail I could 
for the Island or Maiafuera. — Vide Hawlittwurlh' t Cal/ecliaH, 





Spanish Voyarjes. !S5 

bow they called that island, were answered Inchm, which signifies 
in their language It is outs; and tliis mistake in the questiou put 
to them gave rise to the name given to tt by the JLngliah. 

" The Jtlandx of Chiloe are of much greater consequence, and 
1 consider them as the key to the King of Spain's possessions in 
the Paci6c. In the year 17<»7," observes M. de Amat, " I was 
so impreased with this opinion that [ thought it my duty to stale 
loHia Majesty that if the English had any further views of esta- 
bhshitig themselves in these seas, there wax no point so suitable 
for litem as upon these islands ; and I in consequence received 
Hi* Majesty's commands to fortify the port of Lacuy, to send there 
a political and military governor with an allowance of 40O0 dollars 
per annum, and to take every measure requisite for their security 
and protection. In former times they were subject to the Cap- 
lain- Generalship of Chili; but considering the impediments to 
their communicating by land wiih that government, on account of 
ibc hostility of the intermediate Indians, and the want of oppor- 
tunities by sea with Valparaiso, I thought it better at once to make 
them a direct dependency of this government of Lima, through 
wliich they received their succours and orders from Spain ; an 
arrangement of which the king was pleased to approve by his 
royal letters of the loth of October, 1768. 

"These islands were first peopled by us in about 1565-9, 
during the government of Don Jose Garcia de Castro, in Peru, 
from whom ihe principal place takes its name of Castro. To the 
noith, they are separated from Valdivia by the savage Indians 
who inhabit the intermediate coast ; to llie south lies the archi- 
pelago of Chonos and that cimin of islands which extends to 
the Straits of Magellan. On the continent opposite, a Mission 
formerly existed, called Nahiiilchuapy, for the reduction of the 
ludians to the Catholic religion, but it was destroyed by the 
savages, who put the missionaries to death. 

■' The principal entrance to this archipelago is in latitude 42°, 
and runs to 44", where it is lost in another and wider channel. 
'Die population may be from IS to 14,U0O souls, of which about 
£500 may be capable of bearing arms. The fortified places are 
Castro, St. Carlos, Chacao, Calbuco, and Maullin. The inhabitants 
<;row wheat, maLee, barley, and flax ; but their principal food is 
the potatoe. The islands abound in useful timber, suited to ship- 
buildtng. Cattle is scarce from the want of pasturage, but theie 
are vast numbers of hogs : there is also plenty of fine tish, which 
might be turned to good account; and if the people were enter- 
prising, they might make much of the numerous whales which 
resort to their coasts. 

" The expense of the king's troops is annually about 26,833 
dollars for the defence of these isiunds." 



I 



180 Spanish Voyages. 

Tlie visit of Byron to the Falklaud Islands in 1765, and the still 
more formal occupation of those islands by Captain Macbride in 
the following year, seem to have confirmed the previous sus- 
picions of the Spaniards as to the designs of the British Govern- 
ment to establish themselves in the South Seas, It was reported, 
that, not satisfied with the settlement on the Falklands, they bad 
formed another on the coast in front of the islands of Chiloe ; and 
the Viceroy states, that in consequence of these rumours, be was 
again ordered to examine all the ports and harbours to the south- 
ward, and to drive out the English wheresoever they might be 
found. An expedition for this purpose was accordingly fitted out, 
and sailed from Callao in October, 1770. No British settlement 
was discovered ; and the further survey of the Chonos Islands 
only confirmed the opinion previously formed, of their total unfit- 
ness for any settlement whatever. 

With these expeditions the Spaniards would probably have 
rested satisfied, but for the return of Cook from his first voyage, 
and the accounts circulated in Europe of the islands he had 
visited in the Pacific Ocean, especially of Otaheite, which appear 
to have excited no inconsiderable jealousy in Spain. Captain 
Cook returned in June, 1771 9 and in the following October 
orders were sent out to the Viceroy at Lima, accompanied by 
all the notices which could be collected as to the late British 
discoveries, to send an expedition immediately to examine the 
Society Islands, and particularly Otaheite, and to report upon the 
probable utility of those islands, tlieir general state, resources, 
and population ; and this measure was hastened by intelligence 
that the Resolution and Endeavour were again equipping in Eng- 
land to return to Otaheite, as was believed in Spain, to take 
formal possession of those islands in the name of his Britannic 
Majesty. 

The Viceroy, referring to these orders, proceeds to relate, •' that 
upon receipt of them, he fitted out the Aguila frigate under com- 
mand of Don Domingo Bonechea. The Aguila sailed from 
Callao on the 26th of September, 1772, and reached Otaheite on 
the lOth of November following. On her return she was forced, 
on the 26th of March, 1773, to put into Valparaiso in a very crazy 
state, having been out just six months from Callao." 

'^ Captain Bonechea made a most favourable report of the 
people of the Society Islands, by whom he had been kindly 
received and treated, in return for the presents he had taken out for 
them. He stated that no foreign power had as yet formed any per- 
manent estabUshment either at Otaheite or in any of the adjacent 
isles ; but he was told by the natives that the English had visited them 
a few months before his arrival. He brought away in the Aguila 
four of the natives, one of whom died at Valparaiso, and a second 




Spanish Foyages. 187 

sTterwardB at Lima ; the olber two tlie Viceroy ordered to be weli 
dotbedsiK] carefully attended to in his own palace, tlial, upou their 
return, as he says, they might he able to iinpres§ their couDlrymeii 
with proper notions ol* civilization, and of the benevolence of the 
Spaniards. The whole of Bonechea's journals and observations 
on this vojage were forwarded to the King of Spain, in April 
1773, together with a variety of specimens of the productions of 
the islands he had visited, and of the works and manufactures of tlie 
natit-e!, proving them to be far from so uncivilized as might be sup- 
posed, and showing." says the Viceroy, "what useful dependents 
ibey Diight be made of the King of Spain. 1 could not," he adds, 
" faul at the same time strongly express my own opinion to his ma- 
jesty as to the great prejudice which \vould result to his dominions 
in theseseasif any other power were permitted to take previous pos- 
tessiuQ of them ; and the King, concurring in these views, sent 
out ioMructions, in October 1773, again to dispatch Captain Bo- 
oechea in the Aguila to make a more careful survey of Otalieilc, 
and to report how far it might be desirable to form a Spanish 
cttablishmeut there. Captain Bonechea, iu consequence, again 
tailed from Callao on the Q,QlU of September, 1774, and reached 
Otabcile on the 27lh of November. He had on board two 
Fraaciscan missionaries, Father Geronimo Clota, and I'atlier 
Gonzalez, as well as tlie two natives brought away on the former 
Toyage. In company with the frigate went the Jupiter, com- 
manded by Don Jos6 Andia y Varela, carrying out a portable 
bouse, a Unguist to be left atOtaheite with the missionary fathere, 
some sheep and cattle, and an assortment of seeds and iraple- 
neiits. 

" In about 200" longitude from Teneriffe*, they fell in with vast 
numbers of birds of various species, and shoals of flying fish. 

" Bonechea found the harbour of Tallapura inconvenient ; but 
at Tatou-tira (Owhatow-tira) the ships had excellent anchorage : 
ibis port lies in 17" 46' latitude, on the south-east side of the 
island. According to his account, the island of Otaheite may 
be generally described as resembling a figure of 6 : it is from 
tiiirty-tive to foity leagues in circumference, mountainous, and 
much covered with wood ; the water found there is eiicellent, 

" The complexion of the inhabitants, though in some fairer and 
in some darker than in others, is generally of an olive cast ; from 
which and from the great similarity in the customs observed in tlic 
vaiious ttlands examined iu these seas, the Viceroy infers that 
the inhabitants are from one and the same common origin.^most 
probably Asiatic, and deduced through those various groups of 



I 



7. ot LoEilou. Tbe Siianiarda tbtiuiate Iheir longilmle round the 




188 Sjianisk Voyages. 

islands which, on a reference to tlie chart, will be found to extend 
continuously between the equinoclial line and the tropic of Capri- 
corn, from the Moluccas to the centre of the Pacific. 

" In their religious notions and ceremonies, the Otaheitaiis were 
found to be extremely superstitious and particular; but llieir 
chiefs, whom they call eries, are absolute nilers, with power of life 
and death over their vassala — a state of things," the Viceroy ob- 
serves, " which may conduce much to facilitate the introduction 
amongst them of the Catholic faitli. The numbers of these 
people could hardly be estimated without a careful survey of the 
interior of the island. They breed pigs and doga, for which they 
have a high value, and a small sort of domestic poultry ; they have 
besides an abundance of wild fowl in great variety. 

" The plantain and walnut-tree were found there, with many un- 
known fruits of an agreeable taste, and cocoa-nuts equal to those 
of Guayaquil : the sugar-cane also, but the inhabitants did not 
appear to understand its uses. The climate in general was humid 
and warm. 

" The Otaheiteans are expert in the management of their ca- 
noes, in which they pass from one island to another : the; use 
sails made from the bark of the palm-tree. 

" Unfortunately, in the midst of his investigations Captain Bo- 
nechea fell sick and died : he was buried on the £6lh of January, 
1775, by the missionary fathers, at the foot of a cross which they ' 
had erected on their first landing. His loss was irreparable, and 
the frigate returned to Callao, arriving there six months and 
eighteen days from her departure. The Jupiter also came in a 
few days afterwards, bringing four more of the natives, who were 
as kindly received as their countrymen had been previously. 

" The result of this voyage was the examination of twenty-one 
islands, nine of which were low, and the others lofty. A particular 
account of them, as well as llie track of the frigate correctly laid 
down, and all the details of the interesting expedition, were inmie- 
dialely forwarded to Spain. 

" In a few months," the Viceroy states that, " becoming anxious 
to lesrn the fate of the missionaries, and their progress amongst 
the natives, he determined to send the Aguila back again. She 
sailed accordingly on a third voyage the 27th of September, 
1775, under the command of Don Cayetano rie J..angara, of the 
Royal Navy. One of the natives brought away by Boiiecfaea 
returned in her, but nothiug could induce his companion (the 
other two had died) to leave Peru. 

" Captain Langara was made fully acquainted with tlie king's 
views, and received his instructions and orders accordingly. With 
respect to the missionaries, he was to ascertain whether ihey were 
willing to remain or not in their avocation; and, in any event, he 



Spanish Voyages. MB" 

was to receive Uam them all ihe iDrormation they had been able 
to collect. 

" The Aguila was out upon this voyage 143 dajs: she reached 
tlie port of Tatou-lira in thirty-six days, remained there ten, and 
was at Callao again on the 17th of February, 177ti; having fol- 
lowed much the same track as on the preceding voyage. 

" On reaching Otaheite, Captain Langara found a positive de- 
termination on tlie part of tlie missionaries not to remain there. In 
vain he exerted himself to induce them to recollect their particular 
vocation, and to persist in the glorious work they had been sent 
upon, viz., ihe conversion of tlm intidels to Christianity. Fear 
seemed to have taken the place of all that holy zeal which ought 
to have animated them, and they were obstinate in their resolution 
to give up entirely their original pious undertaking. Nothing but 
■ Spanish garrison in the place would have been sufficient to 
induce them to stay where they were. They had made not the 
klighlest progress in the conversion of the natives, of whom they 
hved ill continual dread ; and this appeared the more strange, 
rince the linguist, who had been alone over every part of the 
island, declared that the people everywhere showed the most docile 
and amiable disposition, and were marked in their e.xpressions 
of respect for the fathers. He reported, that the island was well 
peopled, and that the inhabitants, as far as he could judge, could 
not be fewer than 150,000; that they were governed by two prin- 
cipal £nes or chiefs, having others subordinate to them ; the one 
rules on the western side of the island, called Opure, the harbour 
of which is Matauvai, where the Knglish astronomers had passed 
waie lime, giving the natives sheep, goats, dogs, pigs, cats, ami 
geese: tliey had also distributed amongst them coloured cloths 
and a quantity of small gilt medals, dated )77'i, having on one 
lide the bkeness of their king, George ill., crowned with laurels, 
and on the other, two ships on the seas. The other principal Erie 
resides on the opposite side of llie ibiand, near the port of Tatou- 
tira, where the portable house of the missionaries was erected. 
From this chief, as well as from his wife and all his people, the 
fatliers had experienced every kindness ; and when their intention 
lu go away was known, they show ed their grief in the most marked 
matiner, being only consoled with the assurance that they would 
speedily return amongst them. To satisfy them on this head, the 
portable house and its contents were, in the mean time, recom- 
ffiended to their especial care. 

" The missionaries had been frightened at witnessing the sacri- 
fices made by these people to their gods, for tlie health of their 
Enes. Not content, it appears, with oD'ering up animals, they 
did not hesitate also tu sacrifice human beings ut the shrines of 
tl>eir Katua or divinities. The same barbarous csremonies, it was 



L_ 



lf)0 Spanish Voyages. 

understood, were practised on the succession of their chiefs, whose 
power is hereditary, and whereby it was supposed that their good 
and prosperous government was ensured. 

'^ Nevertheless, and in spite of these idolatrous prkctices, these 
people have very proper notions of right and wrong, and believe 
in the immortality of the soul ; and although they were perfectly 
acquainted with the character of our missionaries, it did not ap- 
pear that their heathenish customs in any way prevented their 
treating them with great kindness and respect. In fact, excepting 
some trifling instances of theft, from which these people can with 
difficulty refrain if temptation be thrown in their way, the fathers 
had no cause to complain; and even in tliese instances, the 
offenders were almost always denounced, and on complaint to 
the Erie, the stolen articles were returned, and the delinquents 
would have been thrown into the sea, had not the fathers inter- 
ceded to save their lives. 

^^ It is evident, however," observes the viceroy, ** that those 
selected for the conversion of such infidels should be either en- 
dowed with the ardour and constancy of our holy apostles, or at 
least should be possessed of such a knowledge of some of those 
useful or mechanical arts of which these idolaters are ignorant, as 
might ensure for them such a measure of esteem and influence as 
would mainly assist them in the propagation of the doctrines of 
Christianity and civilization. Such qualifications," he adds, 
*' would certainly produce a strong impression upon these people, 
who might thus be brought, without much difficulty, to embrace 
the Catholic faith. 

'^ Captain Laugara received some account of another island, of 
some importance, called Orairoa (either Roggewin's Carlshoff, or 
Byron's Isle of Disappointment — according to Forster, Qrimaroa), 
distant from Otaheite, in a N.N.E. direction, about forty leagues, 
from some of the natives, who had fled to Otaheite after a battle, 
in which they had been defeated by their enemies. They said 
that the English ships had been also there ; and they reported, 
amongst other things, that pearls were found there, but our 
people saw none of them." 

Cook's account of these visits of the Spaniards to Otaheite is 
as follows. In the narrative of his Second Voyage, in 1773, he 
says : — " Soon after our arrival, we were informed that a ship, 
about the size of the Resolution, had been at Owpaiurua Har- 
bour, near tlie south-east end of the island, where she remained 
about three weeks, and had been gone about three months before 
we arrived. We were told, that four of the natives were gone 
away in her, &c. &c. 

^' At this time we conjectured this was a French ship, but on 
our arrival at the Cape of Good Hope^ we learnt she was a 




(^pottitft Voyaga. 191 

Spaniard, which bad been sent out from America. The Otshei- 
Uns complained of a disease communicated to them by the people 
in this ship," Sec. &c. 

On reaching Otaheite, in 1777, on his third and last voyage. 
Captain Cook says, " he was then told by the natires, that two 
ships had twice been in Oheitepeha Bay since his last visit to the 
island in 1774, and that they had left animals there, such as the 
English bad on board : but, on further inquiry," he adds, " me 
found they were only hogs, dogs, goats, one bull, and the male of 
some other animal, which, from the imperfect description now 
given us, we could not find out. They told us, that these ships 
had come from a place called Reema ; by which we guessed that 
Lima, the capital of Peru, was meant, and that the late visiters 
were Spaniards. We were infonned, that the first time they came, 
ihey built a house, and left four men behind them ; viz., two 
priests, a boy or servant, and a fourth person, called Mateema, 
who was much spoken of at this time : carrying away with them 
four of the natives : that in about ten months the same two ships 
returned, bringing back two of the islanders, the other two having 
died at Lima ; and that, after a short stay, they took away their 
own people, but that the house which they had built was left 
standing. 

" I found it (the house) at a small distance from the beach ; 
the wooden materials of which it was composed seemed to have 
been brought here ready prepared to be set up occasionally, for 
ill the planks were numbered ; it was divided into two small 
roonu, and in the inner one were a bedstead, a table, a bench, 
some old hats, and other trifles ; of which the natives seemed very 
careful, as also of the house itself, which had suffered no hurt from 
the weather, a shed having been built over it. At a little distance 
from the front stood a wooden cross, on the transverse part of 
nhich was cut the following inscription, — ' Chriatus vincit :' and 
ou the perpendicular part (which confirmed our conjecture that 
the ships were Spanish) — ' Carolus III. imperat 1774.' On the 
odier side of the post, I preserved the memory of the prior visits 
of the English by inscribing — * Georgius Tertius Rex, annis 1767, 
1769, J773. 1774, and 1777-' 

" The natives pointed out to us, near the foot of the cross, the 
grave of the commodore of the two ships, who had died there 
nhile ihey lay in the bay the tirst time : his name, as they pro- 
nounced it, was Oreede. Whatever the intentions of the Spaniards 
in visiting this island might be, they seemed to have taken great 
pains to ingratiate themselves with the inhabitants; who, upon 
ttery occauon, mention them with the strongest expressions of 
ejieem and veneration." 



( 192 ) 

VIII. — Observations on the Manners of the Inhabitants who oc- 
cupy the Southern Coast of Arabia and Shores of the Red 
Sea ; with Remarks on the Ancient and Modem Geography of 
that quarter, and the Route, through the Desert, from Kosir to 
Keneh. CommuDicated by James Bird^ Esq. Read Juue 
23d, ]834. 

As steam-communication, between India and this country, has be- 
come a subject of public inquiry, the latest information regarding 
the people of southern Arabia, and along the shores of the Red 
Sea, may be of interest to the members of this Society. I am 
indebted to others for some of the geographical facts which I here 
communicate ; and the remainder of this paper is the result of 
personal observation and inquiry among the Arabs. 

In the afternoon of the 10th of January, 1833, 1 embarked on 
board the Hugh Lindsay, government steamer, which was now 
to perform her fourth voyage to the Red Sea ; and, early in the 
morning of the 20th following, first saw the high land on the Ara- 
bian coast, which lies to the eastward of Ras Sharwin or Kisin 
point. ' At 9 A.M. we had advanced within twenty-tive miles of 
the shore, and observed that the whole of this coast is bold and 
mountainous. It appeared at first sight to closely resemble the 
shores of India ; but a nearer view soon convinced us that we had 
been deceived. The mountains, which rose to the height of two 
or three thousand feet, presented, here and there, the flat tabular 
appearance of the trap formation, with that scarped and fortified 
aspect which characterises the hills on the Dekhan coast, but with- 
out a tree or mark of verdure, without even the stunted brushwood 
which covers and gives beauty to the most barren of those on tlie 
Indian shore ; sterility claiming this dreary region as its own* 
The eye of the observer ranges in wonder over this country, where 
the depth and ruggeduess of the ravines, that descend to the 
ocean, convey to him an impression that desolation here reigns 
triumphant. 

The two vertical pillais which crown the mountain ridge near 
Ras Sharwin, and are named Asses' Ears, on account of their 
fancied resemblance, were soon left behind, while the steamer 
continued her course through the now smooth sea ; and early on 
the morning of the 21st our anchor was cast at Mukallah. This 
port, since the ruin of Aden, has become a place of some import- 
ance ; and is generally frequented as an emporium by the trading 
vessels from India and the coast of Barbara. 

Mukallah, situated N.N.W. of a small point of land that shel- 
ters the town on the east, is concealed from the observation of 
those coming from India until the vessel rounds the headland, and 
has almost entered the bay. Here large vessels obtain safe 



Observations on the Coant of Arabia, Sfc. 193 

anchorage close to the shore, except during the prevalence of 
KlUtherly winds, lo whose violence they are completely exposed. 
It is under the dominion of an independent Shaikh, who has power 
over lew or twelve other towns in ihis neighbourhood. The pre- 
sent possessor, one of a family (hat has for several generations 
been in autliorily at Mukallah, is named Abd-al-Hab. He is not 
less than seventy-tive or eighty years of age 5 is tall in stature; 
is athleticiilly made ; and has a dull, sulky cast of countenance, 
which indicates as much sternness of purpose as ferocity of dis- 
position. Not long previous lo our arrival, one of those petty 
warfares, in which each party calls to their aid the Bedwins of 
(he Desert, had been carried on between the old Shaikh and his 
younger brother, Abd-al-Habib. The latter, who was more po- 
pular at Mukallah than his now surviving brother, raised a consi- 
derable party in his favour, and seized on one (quarter of the town, 
while the friends of his rival occupied another. A desultory firing 
was kept up between the opposite sides for several days; when 
Abd-aKHabib, attacked with symptoms of cholera, died sud- 
dentv ; but not without the suspicion of having been carried off 
by poison, secretly administered. It is thus that an obnoxious indi- 
vidual is easiest removed ; and though we have heard much of the 
Arabs' hospitality, their fidelity, and the openness with which they 
profess themselves your enemies, they will seldom hesitate lo nega- 
tive all these by their actions, when their interest dictates to them 
■ contrary line of conduct. I'requent examples of poisoning 
happen among themselves; and, where distinguished foreigners 
have been the sufferers, I may mention that of the lamented 
tnveller Dr. Seet^en, poisoned by the father of the present Imam 
of Sanaa, who gave to Mr. Mackell, of the Bombay medical 
establish me nt, a manuscript vocabulary belonging to the de- 
ceased, which contains the German and Arabic names of objects 
hi natural history. 

The present Shaikh of Mukallah retains in his service a consi- 
derable number of followers to protect him against domestic foes, 
or tlie attacks of the neighbouring shaikhs, who divide the posses- 
sions of this coast, and are frequently at war with each other. 
These armed retainers, who are generally slaves, and recruited 
from among the Sdhailfs of the African coast, are sometimes, 
however, less innocently employed than in humbling their foes, or 
keeping down sedition; and have been known to plunder defence- 
leas boats from India, with n view of recruiting their masters' 
finances. Instances of this kind are less frequent than they were 
some years ago. The presence of our armed cruizcrs in this 

?uarier, the late establishment of steam communication between 
ndia and the shores of Arabia, and the more intimate and cordial 
VOL. IV. o 



194 Observations on the Coast of Arabia 

connexion formed by the shaikhs with our eastern government, 
have operated as a salutary check on the lawless dispositions of 
the rulers who possess this coast. The Shaikh of Mukallah, 
however, must plead guilty of having been formerly addicted to 
these malpractices ; and felt as little concerned, perhaps, at the 
death of a factious brother as he did at these acts of robbery. 
Abd-al-Rab, though suspected of having been accessory to his 
brother's death, is too far advanced in dotage to have taken an 
active part in the murder; and his k6rani, or secretary, who pos- 
sesses the confidence and power of his master, is more justly 
considered to be the guilty person. 

The coast of Arabia, as before said, is essentially different in 
appearance from that of India. Instead of the amygdaloid and 
basaltic rocks which, in the latter, bound the shores of the 
ocean, we have here perpendicular cliffs of lime and sandstone, 
with alternate shelving banks of white calcareous earth : for the 
red ferruginous soil which covers the mountain sides, and gives 
nourishment to grass and brushwood, we have interminable hills 
of bare rock, barren heaps of trap tuff, and breccia, where not a 
blade of vegetation is seen : for the green colour of the highlands, 
we have a brown or unpleasant grey appearance of the surface ; 
and then the character and costume of the people are quite as un- 
like the other as is the nature of their country. The brown and 
sun-burnt visage, the slender but active form, and energetic manner 
of the Arab, clad scantily, form a no less striking difference to 
the fair complexion, the sleek look, and indolent movements of 
the Hindd merchant, clothed in ample folds of red turban and 
white dhotar, who is here exiled from his native land in pursuit of 
gain. The fine regular features of the Sfimdii traders from Bar- 
bara ; their ringlets of soft hair, artificially changed to a flaxen 
colour, and allowed to flow negligently around their shoulders, 
here again present a contrast to the jet black complexions and 
woolly hair of the Sdhailis from Ajam, who have not the thick lips 
or protruding mouth of the negro. 

The dress of the people in this district is more like that of the 
poorer orders of Indian Mohammedans than that of the Arabs in 
general. Instead of the long blue cotton shirt, with wide sleeves, 
which is worn by the inhabitants of Egypt and Syria, the Arabs 
here use a piece of striped cotton to cover their loins and thighs, 
and have a kirtle, made of cotton or woollen cloth, to come no 
lower than the groin, over which they gird a leather belt, to give 
support to the waist. The last also serves to retain the crooked 
dagger or jambia, and sometimes pistols, with one or other of 
which all are armed. In addition to these weapons, the Shaikh's 
military retainers are accoutred with swords and matchlocks. 




and the Shores of the Red Sea. 193 

llieir usual head-dress is a scanty turban, ivbich some twist about 
tbeir heads, like a rope around a cone. Some wear sandals, 
though the greater number are without any covering to the feet. 
The Sfimilis are yet more lightly clad than the Arabs; and, in 
addition to a wrapper for their loins, have only a thin white sheet 
ihrowD uegligently around their shoulders. The people at Mu- 
kallah intermarry with the Mohammedans of Kahtewar and Gd- 
jar^t; and the Shaikh's youngeitt wile is the daughter of a petty 
chief io that quarter. 

The town bas rather au imposing appearance on approaching it 
from the sea. The houses, which are generally divided into three 
stories, have rows uf narrow latticed windows, flat roofs, and 
watch-towers. Railed walls, ornamented in the Mohammedan 
fashion, with serraled balusters, enclose the roofs of the houses, 
and supply the females of a famiiy with a private place for exer- 
cise, and a cool sleeping apartment during the hot weather of 
April and May, which must be intolerable. The castellated ap- 
pearance of the dwellings reminds one of the baronial habita- 
tions of feudal times; and this style of building was probably 
borrowed from the Arabs about the time of the crusades. Sua- 
bumt bricLs, of white calcareous earth, and shell limestone, are 
the materials generally used for buildings : which, when plastered 
with lime, have an air of outward cleanliness and comfort that is 
not found existing withiu them. 

On visiting Ihe Shaikh, who was seated in the second story of 
hb mansion, we found him surrounded by a body of dirty Arab 
attendants, among whom were several of his children. After some 
conversation with the commander of the steamer, coffee, made 
from the husk of the plant, and sweet sherbet, were handed round. 
I did not relish the former, as it was without sugar ; but, on giving 
over my cup to an attendant, the remaining contents were eagerly 
swallowed by liim , and a clear proof afforded me that the preju- 
dice of the Indian Mohammedans, who will neither eat nor drink 
willi Europeans, has been adopted from the Hindhs. 

This Mohammedan patriarch's attendants, who laughed and 
prallled with each other, were so much at ease in presence of 
their master, as to lead the imagination back to those primitive 
ages when the members of a tribe shared the dangers and counsels 
ot their lord. The room in which the Shaikh received us was 
nearly as primitive as the manners of his followers. It was a 
dirty whitewashed apartment, twenty feet wide, of which the floor 
was covered with a common mat: on which the old man and his 
counsellors were seated; and the only furniture connected wi til 
bis establishmeul, that bore the stamp of modern days, were some 
chain placed for the accomtnodation of bis European visiters. 

o2 



I 



■^p 



196 Obseriations on the Coast nf Arabia 

The hills of Mukallah, which closely approach ihe sea, aixl 
leave little or no irHermcdiate beach, are composed of white lime- 
stone, traversed by sandstone, similar to what forms the hills of 
the Desert between Kosir and the Nile. At tlie base of llw 
highest mountain, situated N.W. of the town, trap breccii 
occurs ; and the same extends some way along the east side of » 
narmw valley, in which flows a small stream of good water, tint 
has its source near the village of Uakrain, distant three miles fma 
the port. 

On the road between Bakrain and Mukallah, veins of seconc 
sandstone traverse the lime formntion in an east and west dim^ 
tion. Near the village, a hot spring, of which the temperature ii 
98° of Fahrenheit, is met with; and also a cold one. from whtdi 
the inhabitants of Mukallah, and trading boats, are supplied ^ 
water. North of the village, the road continues to pass over 
barren, rocky ground, and now and then to deeply wind atnoo; 
hills, where a tew stunted bushes are the only produce, aflurding 
pasture to the goats and camels of the Bedwins. As far ss i)k 
eye can reach, there is nothing seen but a succession of kSli; 
between which are valleys, that occur as oases in a desert, sirate 
to thai of Bakj-ain. The town of Ha/ramant is distant. I «» 
told, five days' journey on an ass, or about a hundred niiles : oa 
approaching which, the valleys are said to widen, ami the riclw 
and deeper soil to produce dale trees abundantly. The present 
ruler of Hnzramaut is Shaikh Bobak-bin-Salim ; to wltotn dirdi 
of the other shaikhs of this coast pay tribute. 

In the valleys, similar to that of Hakrain, a small rill of water 11 
made to irrigate a date-grove ; and several patches of scantjr smI| 
collected by building up terraces along the bed of the water-coum^ 

are cultivated with dGra, (\^) — fiolcus sorglium — some stunUid 

radishes, and occasionally a kashew-nut tree, called vaidaa [ ^j^ 
by the Arabs. 

During the prevalence of the south-west wind, which biings 
rain, in June and July, to this part of the coast, a considerable 
stream is formed in these valleys ; and the (juantily of produce if 
thus considerably augmented, though by no means to an extent 
that might entitle this country to the name of Arabia Felix, given 
to it by the ancients. It was through the medium of this coiinb7, 
and the trade of the Sabteans, that the produce of India, consistutg 
of jewels, spices, and other valuables, was conveyed to the west; 
and such articles uf luxury seem to have influenced so powerfully 
the winds of those who received the imports, that imagination 
associated their richness aud the country from which the; .( 



and the Shores of (he Red Sea. 197 

This is the only way we can account for a moderately fertile tract 
being distinguished by a name that ought to denote a Paradise. 

During the time vte lay at Mukallah, the general range of 
Fahrenheit's thermometer was from 78° to 83°. The wind blew 
from the north-east, bringing along heavy clouds, and sometimes 
a little drizzling rain. I was informed that this last is not unfre- 
qiient here. 

The southern part of the Arabian coast, between the Curia 
Muria islands and Bab-al-MandJb, and also its western border, 
from the Straits to the neighbourhood of Meklia, was known to 
the Greeks, as Apa/Si'a -fi EuSaI*twv, or Arabia the Happy. This 
appellation, given to distinguish it from the other districts of 
Arabia Petriea and Deserta, would appear to be a translation of 
its Arabic name of -j (Yamun), signifying" the Blest;" though 
some, erroneously conceiving the name to be ^_, (Yaman), bate 
said that the Greeks hereby meant to distinguish the country on 
the right or south. The geographer Ibn Alwardi describes it as 
that part of Arabia situated opposite the country of Barbar and 
Zanj, or that of the SfiniKlIs and negroes, and divided from the 
province of Nijrf (JwoJ) by intervening mountains. Among the 
GreekH, Arabia Felix was made to include the country of tlie 
Alramitx, or the modern Hazramaut f^-i ^ ,j^ "), with the pos- 
sessions of the HomeritK, the Sapphoritse, and the Ascitae ; all 
of vthich are mentioned by Ptolemy and Pliny. The Arabian 
geographers, in like manner, sometimes include Hazramaut and 
Tahamab* iu Yamun ; though they generally restrict the appel- 
lation to tliat part which, embracing the sea-shore and moun- 
tainous tracts about Marib and Sanaa, extends from about 
Mokha to Kas Harjiah, or the ancient emporium Arabix. East of 
this is Haitramaut j of which the district, on the coast, from Has 
Harjiah tu Zafar, near Kas Murbat, is known by the name of 
Sbihir+, erroneously called Seger or Sijar, from a wrong reading 
of its Arabic name. It is mentioned by Marco Polo, with the 
article, and correctly called Escinr; the chief city of which gave 
name to the whole, and was forty miles east of Aden. 



I 



iaion of Yunun, 
>. iU limLln are 
: iin Itie noith and eut. 



• Tahamah Is thuM dmeribeU by Ibii Alvrirdi:— " It ii 
tiluatcd bctwurn Hiju unil Yamun, anil is envirani^ by mou 
Uie Sea of Kotmm un the south bhcI we»(, and the mouiili ' 
It U iohabiled by Aruh tcibc* ; and arouag im citict Hejni ii celebrated." 

f Accxiiliug to thii Arabic KBOgiapbical dictioasry, called Miajmu-l-BBtdaii, 
At-Sbfhlt(^^l) ianlTBcl or country on Hieroastuf the lodian Onan and the ter- 

ritury of YamiiD, extending, ihey sny, from Ailen to Oman, to which it is joined. 




198 ObtnaSonM an Ae Coatl of Arabia 

lo this district ii situated the town of u^ (Zafir cr Dabr), 
which muit not be confouDded with a city of the ssmw imic in 
the neigbbouriiood of Sanaa. The last, according to ibc ^ccwra- 
I^ical work called " Maajmn-I-Baldaa," is now i* noBs, aad 
was the capital of the sons of Hamiiar, or the Homerhv. a 
branch of the Sabxans ; over Mhom Charibael ns somni^ in 
the time of the Periplus*. The Homeritx inhabiting Zaiar 
were known to the ancient geographers as the Sapphoritx, 
who inhabited ihe couiilr}' between thie Homeritx and Sabanns. 
PUny tells us that Saphar was a town that lay inwards from ihe 
port of Ocelis, and that the kingdom was called Saphar or 
Sav£. He has confounded it, as would appear, with the dblrici of 
Saba or Maribf ; for Save is placed, by the Periplus, as a luuu 
distant three days from Moosa, and thirteen from Aphar, or Zafar, 
in the country of Sanaa. The Sav^ here meant is probably the 
Mune as j^ (Sbiibba) of the MaaJmu-1-Baldan, which is said 

to be opposite Yamdn, and on the road from Zabfd (-V^) "> 
(.W>1) Sanaa. Saba (uj), called by £zekiel ShebaJ, wd de- 
scribed by Ibn Alwardi lo be the same with Marib, must not be 
confounded with Sav6 and Sabbatha ; the last of which is a city 

in Hazramaut, now called Shibam (AtJi)- Marib, or Saba, was 

the chief place from which oriental produce was obtained in the 
early ages, and is north-east from Sanaa. From this the mer- 
chniits came lo occupy the fairs of Tyre " with the chief of all 
spices, and with all precious stones and gold;^." 

Amidst muny different opinions entertained regarding the 
country from whence came that celebrated queen who visited 
Soliinion at Jerusalem, none appears more reasonable than that 
which ussigns its locality to Marib. From this she came with " a 
vory great train, with camels that bare spices, and very much gold, 
nnil precious stones §." Spices were used for the anointing the 
tiihrrimcic of the congregation, the ark of the testimony, the altar 
of iuccJiiii-, and of burnt offering |. The cassia, cinnamon, and 



• Vliirvnl'n l*arlplii( of Arriin, p.314. 

t 'fha NiiUaii |[CO|{r*|ihy nays, that Haiib is alio one of tbc dtiM of Wrwumfit, 
|hi| wllirli In now in ■ mannir dcitroyeil ; and this i> the city of Saba, from which 
IMW Halkw, Iba wir* of Kuluman, From Hiiramafit to Saba if ■ dUtanea of lira 
ItiMulnil and tatif inilci) and betinwn thii ual Sanaa tticre an ow buodccd and 
twiulv railM. 

t liMUsluvU.-^J. i 1 King. K. 11 II EMdutxxi.a3. 




oKdihaSkonto/thtRMlSaa. igo 

tweet calamn* were imported from India, but the mTrrli wu 
brought from Barbara and the African cxMut, as waa the gold pre- 
•ented by the Queen of Sheba to Solomon. 

The present articles of trade barlered in this quarter are tiie 
same as when the Roman merchants frequented these shores. 
1 was told, at Mukallah, that besides the lajitb, gum, and frank- 
incense, brought by the SCiratllls from Barbara and AJam, sheep, 
fowls, eggs, and slaves are imported, and find a ready sale in 
Arabia. 

There are two kinds of frankincense or fyU) lobau; one of 
which IS the produce of Hazramaut, and is collected by the Bed- 
win Arabs ; the other is brought by the Sfimdlis from Africa. 
Tbe former, which is met with in small globular lumps, has a 
tinge of green in its colour ; but the other, which is more like 
common resin, is of a light yellow appearance. What the SdmiUs 

import, and name l^k*' ^J^ (lobaii mati), is less fragrant than 
the Arabian kind ; it is, therefore, preferred for chewing, but the 
last is more used for fumigation. Both kinds are exported by the 
Uind6 merchants to India, along with myrrh, gum, and small 
portions of honey, collected in the country near Aden. The 
sheep, which are of the Abyssinian breed, have large tails, like 
those of the Cape of Good Hope, and are covered with fine white 
hair instead of wool ; these, with the fowls and eggs, are sold to 
trading vessels that touch on the coast. On our arrival at Mu- 
kallab, there were two American vessels at anchor. They had come 
here to obtain a stock of fresh provisions and radishes, as one of 
them had a crew suffering from scurvy ; which disease made its 
appearance during a long cruije in search of spermaceti whales. 
Excepting sharks' fius and salt fish, obtained here in great abund- 
ance, tbe articles before mentioned are the only ones imported 
from this part of Arabia : and in return, the merchants trading to 
India buy rice, sugar, and cotton clothes ; as in the days of the 
Periplus, when the inhabitants of Muza sailed to Lymirica, and 
Barygaza, or the Desert of Sind, and Broach, and brought these 
articles back to Dioscoris, or Socotra. In exchange for these, 
they loaded their boats with tortoiseshell. Besides the last, ivory 
was purchased on the coast of Barbara ; and at the present day it 
is brought here by a caravan from the interior of Africa. 
Tbe town of Barbara* is situated nearly two hundred miles to 

• Ibn-Alwardi •bj*, " The country of Bubara ii joined to thi couatTjr of Nfib»h, 
on (he (exsait oppwita Vamui ; and in thig (here are populous towna, and a 
mountaia which tbay name KuduU. Thii mountain hai aeven pvski, and !■ viiible 
fOT forty.roiii DiUu at ma.. Haoy of tlie people of Baibara eat irogt, leptilei, aod 
ether unclean tkunga." 




flOO ObwraofioM M the CaaH cfArmbia 

the south of Bab-al-Maiidib. Ahir uwmbla here iDnuallj. 
when uomll trading vesseb arrne fn»ii the Red Sea and Penian 
Gulf. Caravans, of four thousand cameb, ooaie at this time from 
die interior of Africa, and bring with them gums, 1*017, ostrich 
feathers, ikina, and other articles. Tlie language of the Sdmilfs, 
" who possess this counli;, is the GMz or Ethiopic ; which, from the 
specimens of it given in Ludolf 's Xieucon, is a language cognate 
with Arabic. The geography and trade of these countries, hiUierto 
so little known, deserve to be more fully ioTestigated : but I now 
resume my journal of the steamer's pn^ress along the Arabian 
shore. 

On the 24th of January we left Mnkallah, and passed Cape 
Aden. The following morning, at daylight, we came in sight of 
Ras Bsb-al-Mandib, which is a moderately elerated conical hill 
of apparently basaltic formation. The Straits, or Bab-al-Mandib, 
are two narrow entrances to the Arabian Gulf, separated by the 
island of Perim ; which is a black rock, on which there is no trace 
of vegetation. The eastern, or smaller strait, is about three miles 
in breadth, the oilier fifteen. We sailed through the former with 
a light south-east breeze ; and, before night, passed Mokha and 
Jalral Zegfair. South of Jabsl Zf, called by the Arabs, Daoab, 
and near the entrance of the eastern strait, there is a sandy bay, 
with a Bedwin village and water ; the situatioo of which corre- 
sponds with that of Ocelis, said by Pliny to have been more a 
watering-place than an emp<wium. Near the island of Perim, 
and on the African shore, numerous turtles, that are poisonous 
when eaten, are caught, on account of the toTtoiseshell. Many 
Arabs find employment in this trade, as in the age of the Periplus. 

Having passi^d Mokha, we continued our voyage, and expe- 
rienced, on the S7th, an unusually sultry and oppressive state of 
the weather, which was accompanied bv a breeze from the E.S.E, 
These pfaenonieua, being verv uncommon at this season of the year, 
led the captain to concluile that they would be soon succeed^ by 
a strong N.W. wind. Accordingly, towards night, the breeze set 
in from this ijuhrter, aud contiuued increasing, accompanied hy 
cloudy weather and rain. Before the succc<^ii^ morning, the 
bre«ze had become so powerful, and the sailing-rate of the 
steamer so much diminished, as to render it doubtful whether, with 
the limited quantity of coals then oq board, the passage to Jidda 
coulo be made good. At noon, the bland of Zobair was seen 
bearing N.W . by W, ; and, there being now an object in seeking 
a place of shelter till the wind mod^atMl, we bore up for Hodida, 
and not long after came to anchor in four fathoms water. 

Hodida is a town of considerable sue. situated N. E. of a 
swady bay, which, ou oue side, is sheltered bv the land running 
out N.W\, and the other S.S.E. Ships, when utcbored here. 



and the Shores of (hf Ri-d Sea. 201 

are well protected against a hejivy swell, if coming from the north, 
as a coral reef on thai side breaks the violence of the surf. The 
sivie of building is similar to that of Mukallah, but the houses 
are on the whole better finished ; and the domes and minars of 
several mosquea are advantageous additions to the beauty of tha 
town. Though ships and boats less frequently resort to Uiis har- 
bour than the one at Mukallah, yet the market-place of Hodida 
is better supplied with articles of comfort and luxury. Besides 
silks and cloths of various kinds in the bazaar, I observed that 
the several grains procurable in India were exposed for sale. 

Jauar, called by the Anibs \j'i (ddrah), bajri or (^;»^) ddkhan, 

korad, or dujrah Hindi (pkaieolus maximus), ch6na, or (Ijjm) 

sambarah (deer arielinum), with wheat and barley, called^ (harr), 

and ijf^ (shair), are produced, and brought from the valleys of 

Vamiin, where small streams irrigate the only fertile portion of 
Arabia. In the neighbourhood of Mukha. and about Hodida, 
the country is flat and sandy, and chiefiy produces date-trees; but 
from the mountains beyond the Tehamah, which are visible from 
the coast, and are distant two days' journey, grapes, coffee, limes, 
and other produce aie brought to the market. 

About seventy miles south of Hodida there is a river, on the 
fertile Wadi of Zabid, which is the only stream of Arabia that 
contains a sufficient quantity of water to enable the current to 
reach the ocean. It has been sometimes doubted whether any of 
the Arabian streams reached the sea ; and many have thought the 
water of all was expended in irrigation, or lost in the sands. 1 
have been informed, however, by good authority, that this stream 
forms an exception to a general rnle. When [bn-al-VVardi wrote 
tiis geographical dictionary, called " the Pearl of Wonders,'' 
Zab!d is described as a large city on a small river, where merchants 
from the maritime parts, from Habshah, or Abyssinia, Irak, and 
Egypt, came to trade. It has since declined in importance, and 
tlie mouth of the river in which it lies is now so much obstructed 
by a bar of sand, that its water continues quite sweet to the very 
place where it disembogues itself into the sea. 

Oil our arrival at Hodida, the town was in possession of ihe 
rebellious Turkish soldiers of Mohammed Ali, who had mutinied 
the previous year, and taken possession of the town and mosque 
of Mekka', but were soon after driven out by the Nizam Jadid. 
TiJrchi-bil-Maas, their leader, who was absent at Mokha, had also 
seized on Zabid, Bait-al-Fakih, and other places along the coast. 



I 




202 ObKnaHottt on the CoaH of Arabia 

The only cruelty be committed ia tbese cooqneBls wu hRving put 
to death in cold blood the Dadia of Mokba. Tlie coantry seized 
on has been long subject to the Imam of Sanaa ; who, sunk in 
effeminacy and debauchery, thinks not of his subjects' happiness, 
while he can tyramiically find the means of gratifying bis sensual 
propensities with the money cxintributions of bis deputies, unjustly 
raised by exaction. Since our visit the rebels and T&rchi-bil- 
Maas have been driven out of Mokha by Ali-bin-Majitta on the 
part of the Imam. 

We sailed from Hodida on the SOth of January, and arrived at 
Jidda on the 2iid of February. Any description of this place is 
here unnecessary, after the excellent account given by Bnrckhardt, 
the best and most learned of Eastern travellers. Between Jidda and 
Ras Mohammed, there are several places known to ancient and 
modern geography, that can with certainty be identified ; but Dr. 
Vincent has already so well illustrated this subject, that little re- 
mains for others to do. I may. however, remark that the ruined 
town of Inouanah, near the Gulf of Akaba, is the Onn^ of the Peri- 
plus, and that Charmolasis the Sharm Yambd; for Sharm signifies, 
in Arabic, a port. 

From Jidda we sailed for Kosir, where we arrived on the lOth 
of February, from which date I will continue my original journal, 
containing an account of the road from hence to the Nile. 

Feb. 1 Itk. — I visited old Kosir, six miles N. W. of the modern 
town. The town of old Kosir is situated on the north side of an 
inlet of the sea, which formerly extended westward into the land 
about a mile, but is now crossed by a bar of sand, that prevents 
the ingress of the water into the former channel. The ruins of 
the hou^ies are chiefly found on the north side of the channel, 
which is still swampy in some parts of the bottom, where, in 
formur limes, the sea formed a kind of backwater to tlie jioint 
of land on which the town stood. North of the town a range of 
calc-tuff mountains extend a little to the east, and shelter the 
site of the town from northerly winds. Two small conical risings 
crown the summit of [his range, and are the chalky mountains 
mentioned by liruce. The banks which bounded the former inlet, 
are formed of white calcareous tuffa and sand, as is also the whole 
of the shore of the Ked Sea at this part. The sea appears to have 
gradually retired from the land, and left a considerable beach be- 
tween its present limits and the base of the mountains westward. 
Mr. Carlass, of the Indian navy, found a portion of an alabaster 
vase among the ruins, and numerous portions of broken glass, and 
lackered pottery are found. Thermometer at day-break, 6l°. 

New Kosir is situated on the sooth side of a sandy point of 
land, the base of which is formed of shell limestone, forming a 




and the Shores of the Red Sea. 



203 



kind of cove or anchorage where vessels maj lie in five fathoms of 
water within sixty yards of the shore. Hotith of the town, at the 
distance of twenty miles, a range of hills, 4000 feet in height, is 
visible. The sandy banks south of them are more abrupt than 
those ia the north, over which run liills of calc-tuff, that ascend 
to the height of 200 feet. lietween the sand banks and the sea, 
there is a tlat gravelly beach, varying in breadth from a quarter to 
(hree-ijnarlers of a mile. The houses of the town are low and 
meanly built of sun-burnt bricks, made of white calcareous earth, 
and only a few of them consist of two stories. North-west of the 
town is a small citadel defended by round towers, and a few 
guns of no great calibre are mounted on the works. 

Feb. li(A.— Marched from Kosfr, going W. N. W. for one 
hour and twenty-five minutes between banks of brecda and 
pebbles, which appeared stratified as on the banks of rivers. A few 
minutes after came to a stream of water, which followed the course 
of the road, that then turned west and continued so, as far as the 
Bir Anglis. These are wells of brackish water, dug by a detach- 
ment of the Indian army which went by this route into Egypt, 
and are distant two hours and thirty minutes. On the south side 
of the stream, some black hills of trap-rock occur, and soon after, 
on the same side, there are ranges of stratified limestone, of 
which the strata dip N. E. On the opposite side, sandstone and 
lime are found alternately. The whole of the road is flat and 
gravelly, having all the appearance of a broad dry river bed, open- 
ing here and there, on the right and left, into valleys of two or 
three miles in length. In the limestone, near Bir Anglts, the 
strata alternate with sand, and are frequently studded with round 



Debbles. Th. 



at ilay-break Gl% in tl 



shade. 



narch- 



mg, 70°. 

While near the shores of the Red Sea, I may mention that 
Lieutenant Wellstead, of the Indian navy, found three stone tablets 
belonging to a temple which he uncovered near Uas-ul-Anf, and 
has determined beyond doubt the site uf the antieut Berenice, 
Two of the tablets were inscribed wiih hieroglyphics, and a third 
with Greek, The last, which was mutilated, contained a dedi- 
catory inscription by a Ptolemy, who had for his queen a Oeopalra, 
his wife and sister. Such was the case with Ptolemy Euergetes, 
P. Lathurus, and P. Dionysius, husband of the renowned Cleo- 
patra. 

Feb. 13th. — At thiriy-five minutes past seven, left Bir Anglis in 
continuation of the march through the Desert. The two narrow 
wells of brackish water at Bir Anglis are the only means of sup- 
ply which the poor Moghrobiii pilgrims, going by this route to 
Mekka, have of quenching their thirst, though the water is totally 



L_ 



(204 Obiervntions on the Coatt of Arabia 

unauited for the use of those who can carry with them skins of 
wholesome water or other such means of supply. The road lay 
west for one hour and twenty luiDules, or four miles, between light- 
coloured hilU of lime and sandstone, situated ou the right. The 
tiat tabutiir arrangement, scarped-like face, and striated appearance 
of the different strata of these hills were finely contrasted with the 
black shining surface, the rounded waving ridges, and conical pro- 
jections of the trap breccia on the left. The valley, which had 
seldom exceeded in breadth a good-sized river, narrowed where the 
aaudslone formation joined the other, which was continued on both 
sides of tlie road, though rocks of the sandstone formation occa- 
sionally re-appeared. After thirty-five minutes past eleven, we 
arrived at Sayad SGliman, where are the remains of an old wakalah 
or caravanserai, and a well uf tolerably good water for the desert. 
The latter, as appears from ihe names of Messrs. Briggs, Han- 
cock, and Wood being recorded here, had been lately repaired at 
their expense. The distance between Bir Anglis and Sayad Stili- 
man took us four hours ; and, after having rested a litlle, we con- 
tinued our march, four hours more, to Abu Ziran, where there 
is no water. Here there is a ruined wakalah, in the middle of 
which there is a deep excavation, now partly filled up, but which 
was either a reservoir for water, or a well. We passed several 
watch-towers on the road, and another ruined wakalah, besides 
iliose just mentioued ; all of which are said, by the natives, to be 
the work of the Afraiij, but who may be particularly meant by 
the term does . not appear clear. The distance from Sayad 
Suliman took four hours, the road occasionally turning S. and 
S.W. The loaded camels were ten hours from Bir Anglis to j 
Abd-Zlran. \ 

Feb. 14M, — Left Abu Ziran at half-past seven: the thermo- 
meter, at sun-rise, was as low as 35°. For an hour and ten 
minutes, the road lay W^., after which it ascended a litlle, run- 
ning W. S. W. one hour and fifty minutes more to Bir-us-Sid, 
where there is water. Ou the rocks, south of this well, there 
is a short hieroglyphic inscription. From Bir-us-Sid, two hounff 
and twenty minutes, we came to a well-executed hieroglyphic in-;^ 
scription, on the north of the road ; a little farther on from which,,' 
and on the opposite side, very distinct and extensive hieroglyphic j 
inscriptions are found. From hence to Hammamat is a distance >1 
of thirty-five minutes. Here there is a ruined wakalah, and a very 
deep well of bitter water, to which we descend by stone steps. 
The whole fabric has been lately repaired, and a Marhab or altar- 
piece built, for the Ababdi Arabs of the desert, by the gentlemen 
whose names are recorded at Sayad Suliman. At Hammamat^ 



i 

:l 

I 



^"~ J 



ajui Ike Shores of the Red Sea. 

altitude, and more abrupt than the ranges previous!}' met with ; 
and about an hour and a half, or four miles and a half from 
hence, the beds of the watercourses, which ran east in the previous 
part of the road, now began to end. V\ est from Hamniamat to 
Jaif-ul-Ajul, where we halted, was a distance of one hour and 
fifty minutes. The loaded camels performed the whole distance 
from Abu Ziran, in nine hours and forty-live minutes. Jaif- 
uUAJul is a sandstone rock, on the right-hand side, where the 
camelmen usually halt ; it is covered with hieroglyphic characters, 
and over a small model of a portico to a temple, on each side of 
which is a figure of Osiris, there is something written in demotic 
characters. 

Feb. ioth. — Left Jaif-ul-Ajul at a quarter past seven. Tlie 
thennunieter at sunrise was SB°, The route alternately lay 
W. N. W. SO", and W. S. VV. 80°. Soon after leaving this place, 
tlie countiy expands and becomes more open, the road running 
between low ridges of sandstone, while the high hills appear at a 
considerable distance on the right and left. Arrived at Lagetta 
after five haul's and a halt'. The loaded camels were seven hours 
and fifteen minutes on the road. Lagetta in an Ababdi village. 

Feb. Uilh. — I^ft Lagetta at seven o'clock. Thermometer 39° 
at sunrise. Arrived at liir-Amber after six hours, tlie loaded 
camels having taken seven hours and a half- The route lay alter- 
nately VV.N.W. and N. N. VV. over successive ridges of sandy 
gravel. Amber is the first village on the limits of cultivation ; 
having on the east side high banks of gravel and sand, and about 
six or seven miles from it are the sandstone hHls which bound the 
Nile on the west. The hills from this village bear W. S. W. 80°, 
and run towards the north. On our arrival at the mosi^ue of this 
village, built by ibi'ahim Pasha, the villagers brought out milk, 
butter, eggs, and fowls ready cooked, and entreated us to buy 
their articles. The scene was altogether a novel one, and so 
ardently did the vendera urge their claims to our patronage, that we 
were at length induced to buy something, in order to get rid of 
their troublesome entreaties. We found the double water-wheel 
of India here worked by bullocks. The Shaikh of the village 
induced us to lake a night-guard, by telling us what former travel- 
lers had suffered from the thieves. 

Feb. nth.— Led Bfr-Amber at half past seven, and arrived at 
Keneb at eleven, having been three hours and a half. Thermo- 
meter 52° at sunrise. 

In concluding these cursory observations on the countries and 
inhabitants in the vicinity of the Red Sea, 1 would suggest the pro- 
priety of this Society endeavouring to obtain, through the means 
of some of its travelling members, a more full and accurate de- 



L 




fi06 



ObtennOioiu on the Coatt tfAniU, ^. 



aciiptioa duo we yet posscn of thtt part of Arabia called tlw 
coait of Hazramaut; and also an account of the cottBtries of 
Ajam and Barbara, whkh, from their coooezioD, prior to our 
era, with the Greek kingdom ttf E^ypt. are well wortti; die atteo- 
tion of geographen. The history of the different races inbabitii^ 
thii quarter would be a aubject of curious inquiry ; aod an account 
of the physical characten of the S&malf and Bedja tribes, and in 
what respects they are different from those of the Sbangalla and 
N^pros, would enable us to determine, with accuracy, die origin 
and distributioa of tbeae several orders of men. 




( ao7 ) 



ANALYSES. 



I. — Private Journal kept on board H.M.S, Favorite on tke Neu>' 
foundUxnd Station. By Captain H. Robinson, R.N. 18S0. 
MS. pp. 39. with App. 

So little is generally known of Newfoundland beyond the im- 
mediate precincts of St. John's, that we have examined this 
Journal, placed in our hands by the politeness of the author, with 
some care, in hopes of gleaning a few novel facta from it. 
Unfortunately, however, it is of fourteen years' date; and that 
which at the moment would have been valuable has been for the 
most part anticipated, particularly in the account of Newfound- 
land published in Macgregor's British America. Our selections 
must therefore necessarily be few, and of inferior interest, 'lliey 
must also be desultory, to avoid quoting from the account ad- 
verted to. It is known that the Newfoundland Station includes 
Uie coast of Labrador ; and regarding this latter, Captain Robinson 
observes : — 

' The climate is here bad : dig deep, uad frost is found through- 
out the year. The harbours are good, but the bottom is every 
where rocky. Ships (men of war) coming on (he coast should 
have two chain-cables ; and make a garden at L'Anse 4 Loup on 
their first arrival. The soil here is rich, and it is much the most 
eligible part of Labrador for settlers. Com will not ripen, but 
serves for green food ; and potatoes, cabbages, lettuce, spinach, 
and early Dutch turnips do well. Fish are abundant, but there 
is no weather to cure them after the 10th September. Herrings 
are very tine, and plentiful in August. Curlews came on the 
IMh August, and went on the 15tfa September; succeeded by 
grouse, ptarmigan, and partridges. There is generally much 
rata on the whole coast ; but the temperature was more equable. 




208 Captain Kobinwn oh Ldhrador tmd Newfoandiand. 

according to our obBenatioiu, thaa vAea Cartwii^t made his in 
1778-9- Hie current always seta to the southward along the 
coast : the tides rise six feet to the northward ; about four to the 
southward. The prevailing winds are from W.S.W. to N.W. ; 
diere is less fog than farther south, and the Straits of Belleisle 
are never frozen over. 

" The prevailing rock on the Labrador coast is gneiss. On this 
at L'Anse i Loup, a bed of old red sandstone is superposed, 
about two hundred feet thick, and eitending above half a mile 
inland. Here also, as on every other part of the coast of Labrador 
visited by the Favorite, the appearance of the cliffs, and of the 
land near them, and the rolled masses inland which have evidently 
been exposed to the action of the sea, seem to prove that this 
has considerably receded. The sandstone is generally red and 
white, in alternate stripes, and presents a remarkable mural front 
to the sea. Near the surface it was strongly marked with iron. 
The whole of the rock was composed of white quartz and yellow 
felspar ; and the grains were generally as fine as oatmeal, though 
occasionally coarser, even to the extent of half an inch in dia- 
meter. Both coarse and fine bear marks of being a mechanical 
deposit, being perfectly distinct, without the least appearance 
of amalgamation, only a few exceptions occurring to this 
remark. 

" Over the red sandstone was a thin stratum of red compact 
felspar, containing vegetable impressions, and also horizontal. 
Above this were varieties of secondary limestone, arranged in 
parallel strata several feet thick, and full of shells. Detached 
masses of primitive limes^tone were also found ; and a few miles 
from the shore the secondary formations generally disappeared, 
kaving gneiss and mica slate on tbe surface. 

" North of Cape Charles on the Labrador coast the land falls 
back to the westward, and the shore changes its character, be- 
coming shoal and running off in flats ; whereas to the southward 
it is bold and abrupt. The prevailing rock, however, is still gneiss, 
containing numerous veins of granite, from a few inches to many 
feet in thickness, the constituent parts being highly crystallized 
plates of grey mica four or five inches in diameter, very transparent 
quartz, and finely-reticulated white felspar. The diameter and 
dip of the gneiss rock is here, as elsewhere on the coast, to the 
north-west, and at an angle of nearly 65". It is coarse and dark, 
hornblende taking the place of mica ; and frequently very light 
greyish felspar forming the chief constituent. Where this occurs, 
the face of the hill has a remarkable spotted appearance. On 
' one of the islands which here skirt tbe coast, a large bed of pri- 



CaptaiD Robiii! 



n Labrador and Newfoundland. 209 



mitive greenstone was found, forming a range of hills renting on 
the gneiss, and apjieating to have the aame direction. On the 
western part of these islands also the gneiss gives pluce to mica 
slate, this commencing beyond the above-mentioned range of green- 
stone, which appears to mark the line of demarcation between 
them. The mica slate then predominates through all the islands 
and shores examined to tlie westward of this point : — viz., to the 
Mealy Mountains in Sandwich Bay, a distance of about thirty- 
live miles. In some places crystals of garnet are very abundant 
in it ; and in others considerable beds of granite were found, of 
confused appearance, and in which quartz and felspar predomi- 
nated. The Mealy Mountains are the highest land on this coast, 
and were computed to be about 1484 feet high, covered nearly to 
the top with wood, notwithstanding the severity of the climate. 
They are of mica slate, with a dark, fine-grained formation of tlie 
same, resembling basalt, at their base. The general rock Is coarse- 
grained. At the foot of these mountains were also found beds 
eight and ten feet thick, aud large rolled masses, of a remarkable 
conglomerate rock, of which ihe basis was composed of grains of 
mica, quartz, and felspar; and the imbedded masses were large 
rounded pebbles of tjuartz, mica slate, felspar, hornebleiide, 
granite, and gneiss. The whole was so hard as to be with diffi- 
culty broken, striking tire under the hammer. The imbedded 
fragments were all water-worn.' 

The following is the Meteorological Table kept on board the 
Favorite, chiefly off the Labrador coast, from the IBth June to 
the 0th Seplember. IS20: — 



I 



Ab$tract of 


Journal 


of the dak of Ihe Weallier, Sec. on the Coiut 1 


of Labrador, from Jvne 18JA lo Sept. 6tk, IBSO. | 


Djiifl, 


J 


1 


L»L 1 LoDK- 


WiniU. 


...... 


Sudkv, Jiuu'lS 


305 


SG 


° '.. T .'. ' 


SixiUietlj 


fUikd (Wm SI. iaba-t. 


M«>i.:r. . 19 






50 i)5s a au 




ttnloy WMltaer. 


T»«d.y. . so 


3043 










Fine .rath... 


WtiOtti. . 11 












P<wy- 


nund*;, „ a* 












h",. ArtivcdiqMiBBr Sound. 


SSL. -.S"'.- 


u 






E.N.E. 


•"■Wy- 


43 








Fim.WoU.«. 


Soxl-T. ■ » .. 








ti|«ith 




UoBday. , « 












Tm-*.,. _ *7 30 








SiH^Ui^rly 


Hmvj ndn. {C^iB Chirlri 


W«dH^ . SS 3U 1 8 










Flna "Mlher. Wrnl nrand 10 


TbandBy. . 19 30 3 S 








S-v'. 


FKihbnsHi. [IhaHsiJliludL 


PH4.^^:^30,ao»3 


U 


" 






LcftCapa C'luiik^, K <uic1u>nd >! 










L..ft P.^ lri»nd...uUauch„™d 


i-iuiij/' !" S 30SS 


M |B3 S7 5S 16 IS 


Vniiiblc 


Fine ueslbur. (laSiiaU> Hoy. 



L 




fllO CBptun Robinson on Labrador and Newfauiuiland. 



»., 




J 


i 
1 


u. 


L"*. 


wind* 


.„„.. 


M«4.>'. 


July 


3080 


M 




- 


° ■ " 


NmiliBly 


ClDudywHUui. UnSaadyBi}. 


Tuwtaj. 




3014 












Tn£ Bnh!hi. 


WrduoMl. 




30 1£ 










N.E." 


Thuniby, 




MSB 


.19 










CkHidy whUiot. Anrhnnd iu 




















SWutiiy. 




sd'os 










UilU 




Sunday, 
















Audited DlT Uiu Mnly M«iu- 


MoDdiv. 










L6D 


W V 16 


Nottiurly 


FiM wsalhct. [win.. 


T»«b.V, 




3034 


« 










AuhoKdlHkm tho IlMly U<«ii' 


W«lD,.iL 


H S 


»9? 


U 










Uuny wcalher. lUini. 


Tliarmilii;, 


. U 
















Frid.», 






7i 










Mealy MoQolain. I4W f«l hi,l, 


ftHwd.v. 


1 B 




S7 








Vuiibte 


Balny. [dlanllarbi^ir. 


Sawt.,,- 


. 6 




U 










Fine WMlliet. Ak1«»w1 la l>i- 


Moaday. 


. 1 














AuctHTKl in Uumpiiiij KaFbmii. 


wiSSli 




3001 


1 








Clm 


s-sr 1™, ,. 


Thnndiy. 






19 








8.K. 






" K 


■;_ 


49 








Dllh. 


Fxwy <'•'atller^ [Oready H«b! 
Fta-rdilW. S*a«d teim Uwady 


j(«Brt.j; 


', ^ 












EkEi' 




HogU-y. 




3DS1 












tiaiy.' AiHird il Capu l-'kiaril^^ 


TiWKtaj. 


. » 




61 








Virikhle 


lUioy. 


WrdaoiL 






7a 








Diiio 


Kin.Vralhrr. rait.1. 

F=M,.S.dtJft™Cap,t:harl>-^ 
Hiuy. Arrivad al froqiio. 


TbnndMt. 
















11SS;. 


. » 


3008 


w 










sj»d^y. 




3033 












BalBy. ^ 
















Culo, 


Flnoir«.lh«. 


T«»i.j'. 


Aug. 1 












VarUble 


Rainy. 


Wrdn..i. 


. S 


xa 


hi 








Dillo 


riQuaj. 


ThundRj. 




»79 


w 










KaiuJ: 


rriday/ 
















Fine vullicr, floiltd tnaa Ciuqar. 


dwutday. 














Ea.t.riy 




a«nil.i. 






M 










5quaUy. Anivi'd al LAna.' 


Monday. 






G4 










FSH.we.lhe>. [kl^^i-. 


Tu«d.y, 




3U8 


n 












W«lnrtd. 




M)I) 


GS 










Fr,J,l,w«ei. 


Thn™Uy. 




»«0 


60 








VMll.b> 




Frid«v. 


, 11 












WLnUrly 


Kitura>y. 


> H 


30 1 6 










V,.ri.ble 


"llIilL"""''"' 


»"!.*. J, 






60 










M«id,V, 














uliw 




Tor«t,y. 


, 15 
















W,.dn«d, 


. 16 


3a« 1 


aa 








Va^bk 


Dilto. ti L..a,t 
Dlllii. AniTad in FmucU Harf.. 


Thofd,,, 


. n 




98 










Hrid.v^' 




3030 


T7 








WrrtcrlT 


FlTa1ibr«Iea 
















Dine. ^ 


Fo(W]r K«lhrt. 


SuDllly,'' 


. 31 














Rainy lUtto. 
















V^alile 


Fiurdfiu. [lUibwr. 


T««^V, 


I 19 




60 










WlnjBB galri. SaUrd fruo. Kiwi> 




. S3 










:: 






p>"r-UT. 


. SI 












"™* '"' %'L.i'^ 


Fnd.y. 




»'9S 


fio 










HituBluy, 


- SR 














Siii>A.r. 


. n 


3IISfi 












Monday. 


. w 


3030 


63 




.. 




Rainy wealh^r. 


Tur-Uy, 


. 33 


3030 


60 




■■ 


siw. 




Wednr^ 


. 30 


31130 












Tb«r-Uy, 


. 31 














Friday, - 


Brpt 1 


3QS0 


60 










Wu'lT^''' 




»87 
















»u3a 












MuDdoV, 




3" 4 II 












Tur^taj. 






59 










WeUwiil 


__! 


3003 








NurUzMl) 


P«J, llrt™i 




GmptmJMoMtmim Labrador and Newfinatdbmd. 811 



The folloffin^ also is an abstract of the infonnatioD respecting 
the Labrador fisheries the same year : — 

" The American fiiherraen sail from all the northern ports of the 
Union. As nearly as could be computed, there were 530 aail 
of them this year, generally schooners, but some few brigs and 
sloops, and manned with crews of from nine to thirteen men. 
Eleven would be a full average, giving 5BS0 as the number of 
men employed. One hundred quintals of Aah per man is n full 
average of iheir catch ; with oil in the proportion of one ton (o 
every two hundred quintals. The Americans clean their fish on 
board, and thus leave the coast early. They use much salt, and 
their fish is considered inferior to our best. They are expert and 
industrious fishermen, generally preferring the northern part of 
the coast, but following the fish wherever they are to be found. 
They receive a bounty from their government in the shape of a 
drawback on the salt used ; and they tish in shares, a merchant in 
America furnishing the vessel, and one-third of the boats, nets, 
lines, and salt ; the crew furnishing their own provisions (which 
are of a very frugal description), and the remaining two-thirds of 
the boats, nets, lines, and salt. They divide in the same propor- 
tions, and the system is said to answer well. 



" The French are much less successful fishermen, and do not 
very much frequent the Labrador shore, though they have some 
permanent stations on it. It is not believed, however, that they 
could maintain them, were it not for their extreme frugality, and 
the premium allowed by tlieir government, which is so regulated 
as to make SO francs per quintal the minimum price received by 
the fishermen. 



" In 18S0, the English fishery on the Labrador coast north of 
Cape Charles was as follows :-^ 




CIS Cqttaio Robinioa oa LeAmdor ond Newfimmdiamcl. 



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Captain Robinson on Labrador and Newfoundland. 213 

On tlie Slh September, the Favorite auitted the coast of La- 
brador, and made for Conception Bay, Newfoundland. On the 
passage Captain Robinson observes : — 

" Passed several icebergs, which are diminished in size since we 
last saw them. A mat ter-of- fact person has great difficulty in 
entering into that excited state of imagination which invests these 
icebergs with wild magnificent forms and resplendent variegation 
of colour. To me they show nothing arabesque, but appear large 
mis-shapen hills of dead wiiite, frequently of a light green or blue 
tinge, with lissures of a darker shade. The laugh directed against 
Captain Koss for describing the Arctic Highlanders as astonished 
at a looking-glass, when they must have seen themselves in ice- 
bergs, appears to ine without reason, as these mountains of frozen 
snow are perfectly opaque, their edges alone, or thin portions, 
being slightly translucent; and the rough surface is nearly as in- 
capable of performing the part of a looking-glass, as would be a 
while-washed wall." 

On the lOlh September, the Favorite arrived off Harbour 
Grace, in Conception Bay, after sailing along "a nice English- 
looking coast, studded with many fishing establishments. Har- 
bour Grace is a good port ; and the town is considerable, and of 
a respectable appearance. Conception Bay, in which it is situate, 
is the richest and most populous country district in Newfound- 
land, containing altogether 14,600 inhabitants, a large proportion 
of the SfJ.OOO which the most recent census (1 820) gave for the 
whole population of the islund. They are distributed in a number 
of small towns, or tishing and agricultural hamlets ; near another 
of which, Port Grace, a remarkable basin is hollowed out in the 
cliffs by the action of frost, or the more certain operation of time 
in decaying the slate clay of which the rocks are composed. First 
an arch is entered, 0,0 feet wide by 20 high ; and beyond is the 
basin itself, which is about 300 feet in circumference, and sur- 
rounded by perpendicular rocks 120 feet in height, with a border 
of dwarf spruce at top. At one corner a little exit among broken 
masses of rock carries off the superfluous water ; the depth near 
the centre of the cavity is about 14 feel," 

Not far from this, and near the extremity of Port Grace Har- 
bour, arc also the remains of a supposed ancient colony, which 
some have attributed to the Danes or Icelanders ; but which. 
Captain Robinson comes to the conclusion, cannot be earlier than 
the tirst settlement of the country by the English under Lord 
Baltimore. The opposite opinion he conceives to be founded on 
a statement quoted (be believes, on private authority) by Mr. 
Dairow, " that a parly of settlers, proceeding up a river which 
falls into Conception Bay, observed at the distance of six or seven 



I 




■dcs Aon the Bit, the tppmaon of itone walls rising just 
above Uk torface. On Raoni^ tbe avNl aad aflitral etrth, they 
ascHUined tbeae to be tbe remain* of — eient baibUngs. with oak 
beans, ^kI mill-stoaes sniA in oaken be<ls. Indoatires re- 
Minb^ig prdeaa were abo traced oal, and plants of various kinds 
«Be foond growing aboot the place, not indigettons to the island ; 
bcrt tbe moat ciecisiTe proor of tboe rains being the remains of an 
aacient European cotoaj was drawn from the different kinds of 
coin* found about ibem, some of Dvtch gold, wbicfa d>e inhabit- 
ants considere d to be old Flemish coins, olben of copper without 
inscripdoDS.' In opposioon to this, however, the following facts 
aad aignments are adduced br Captain Robinson: — 1. The 
acttial magnitude and extent of the remains of buildings found 
are greatly o*er-slated in tbe above extract. He esamiDed them 
very carefully, and could find nothing of more importance than 
tbe remains of a mill. 2. Tbe supposed remains of gardens are 
fire miles from this spot, and tweire miles from where the coins 
were found ; the existence of which last in the place where dis- 
covered, may, he thinks, be satisfactorily accounted for by the 
habit, indulged in by all tbe ancient voyagers, of barring coins. 
Only four, as far as be could learn, of virgin ^ild, were found at 
all. 3. Although the buildings discovered are undoubtedly an- 
cient, yet (hey bear no marks whatever of a higher antiquity than 
the lime of luord Baltimore's setttemeiK ; on tbe contrary, it is 
perhaps diflScuit to imagine them quite so old. And 4. Though 
the desire of the neighbouring inhabitants is to favour the high 
antiquity of these remains, yet tbeir evidence, on comparison and 
cross-examination, is much against it. 

On leaving Harbour Grace, Captain Robinson observes : " i 
have been much pleased with my TJsit to this port. The harbour 
is good, and though the space between the end of the bar and the 
north shore is rather narrow, a large ship, well handled, may beat 
through, or back and fill in and out with the tide. Approaching 
the town from the northward you pass a large house, surrounded 
by some considerable trees, which has an English appearance ; 
as has also the little town, with its parsonage in the centre of a 
pretty garden, and weather-beaten church, bearing an antique, 
un-Newfoundlandish air." The Favorite next proceeded to the 
smat) island of Belletsle, in Conception Bay, * which deserves tbe 
name of ' Belle ;' wheal ripening well on it, and yielding nineteen- 
fold ; potatoes fouiteen-fold ; and oats, hay, and regetables doing 
equally well. Belleiste will be a nursery-garden to the great em- 
bryo towns of Conception Bay ; and indeed it is a reproach to 
Mewfonndland that, with many similar spots either on its own 
territory, or within its waters, it is still dependent on Prince 




Captain Robinaon on LabradoT and Newfoundland. 

Edward's hland and Halifax for supplies. But," as Captain 
Robinson immedialel}' afterwards observes, " fishing has hitherto 
paid better than husbandry." 

The Favorite next proceeded to St. John's, and aflerwardg re- 
turned to Eugland. We shall conclude our extracts, therefore, 
first) with a brief iiurralive concerning a poor native woman, which 
seemii to us to exhibit some peculiar aspects of untutored cha- 
ncier ; and next, with a vocabulary of the language of these 
people. We are not aware that either has been published before 
in detail ; though the story in its general outline is well known. 

" From the war of extermination waged against the natives of New- 
foundland by the Mic Macs, who had settled near St. George's Bay, 
and frequently came over in considerable numbers from Nova Scotia, 
and from the barbarous treatment which th^v formerly received at 
the hands of our early settlers in Newfoundland, they had entirely 
deserted the sea-coast, and by keeping within their woods and fast- 
nesses, avoided all intercourse ivith strangers. Captain Buchan'a 
attempt, in 1803, ending in the murder of his tivo marines left as 
hostages, appeared also to have put an end lo the hopes that were 
entertained of civilizing this barbarous race. They had, however, of 
late years frequently ventured down to the houaea in the Bay of Ex- 
ploila, for the purposes of plunder or of mischief; and at length, Mr. 
Peyton, a settler, having suffered much from their depredations, went 
up the river with a party of ten or twelve men, to recover hi^ pro- 
perty, and, if possible, to communicate with his sjwliators. Having 
travelled seventy miles on the snow, he surprised three natives at a 
little distance from their wigwams ; one man, who appeared a chief- 
tain, was ver^' untractable, rejecting all overtures of friendship, and 
at last attacked old Peyton in so ferocious a manner, that the young 
man, to save his father's life, was obliged to shoot the savage. The 
woman who was in compiiny, and was, as it afterwards appeared, the 
wife of tlie poor victim, did not fly, shed no tears (a savage seldom 
weeps) i but, after a few minutes* violent strujrgle of emotions, which 
were visible in her intelligent countenance, anguish and horror 
appeared to give place lo personal fear, and she went to the murderer 
of her husband, clung to his arm as if for protection, and strange to 
say, a most devoted attachment appeared from that moment to have 
been produced towards him, which only ended with her life. To him 
alone she was all gentleness, affection, and obedience ; and the last 
act of her ' brief, eventful history,' was to lake a ring from her finger 
and beg it might be sent to John Peyton. 

" The tribe were in the neighbourhood of this disastrous meeting, 
and il was necessary that the Peyton* should secure their retreat; 
they had a sley, drawn by dogs, in which Waunathoke, or Mary March 
(as she was afterwards named, and as we may now call her), imme- 
diately placed herself, when she understood she was to accompany the 
party, and directed them by signs to cover her over, holding her legs 
out lo have her moccassins laced ; and both here and aubsequently. 



2l6 Captain Robinson on Labrador and Newfoundland. 

by her helplessness, by the attention she appeared habitually to ex- 
pect at the hands of others, and by her unacquaintance with any 
lahorious employment, indicated eitlier a superiority of station, or 
that she was accustomed to a treatment of female savages very dif- 
ferent from that of all other tribes. She was quite unlike an Esqui- 
maux in face and figure, tall and rather stout-bodied, limbs very small 
and delicate, particularly her arms ; her hands and feet were very 
small, and beautifully formed, and of these she was veryproud ; her 
complexion, a light copper colour, which becatne nearly as fair as a 
European's, after a course of washing and absence from smoke ; her 
hair was black, which she delighted to comb and oil ; her eyes larger 
and more intelligent than those of an Esquimaux; her teeth small, 
white, and regular ; her cheek-bones ruther high ; but her counte- 
nance had a mild and pleasing eipression (her miniature, taken by 
Lady Hamilton, is said to he strikingly like) ; her voice was remark- 
ably sweet, loM-, and musical. When brought to Fogo, ahe was taken 
into the house of Mr. Leigh, the Church Missionary, where for some 
time she was ill at ease, and twice during the night attempted to 
escape to the woods, where she must have almost immediately perished 
in the snow ; she was, however, carefully watched, and in a few 
Weeks was tolerably reconciled to her situation, and appeared to enjoy 
the comforts of civilization, particularly the clothes ; her own were 
of dressed deer-skins, tastefully trimmed with martin, but she would 
never put them on or part with ihem ; she ate sparingly, disliked 
vine and spirits, was very fond of sleep, never getting up to break- 
bst before nine o'clock ; she lay, rolled up in a ball, in the middle of 
her bed. Her extreme personal delicacy and propriety of conduct 
were very remarkable, and appeared more an innate feeling than any 
exhibition of tact or conventional usage. Her power of mimickry 
was very remarkable, and enabled her quickly to speak the language 
■he heard ; and before she couid express herself, hersigns and dumb 
show were curiously significant. She described the servants, black- 
smith, tailor, shoemaker, a man who wore spectacles, and other per- 
sons whom she could not name, with a most happy minuteness of 
imitation. It is a beautiful provision, that savages and children, who 
have much to learn, should be such good mimics, as without that 
faculty they could learn nothing, and we observe it usually leaves them 
when they no longer want its assistance; to this we should often 
ascribe family resemblances, which we think are inherited. But to 
return to Mary March ; — she would sometimes, though rarely, speak 
fredy to Mr. Leigh, and talk of her tribe. They believe in a Great 
Spirit, but seem to have no religious ceremonies. Polygamy does not 
appear to be practised. They live in separate wigwams, Mary's con- 
sisted of sixteen; the number was discovered in rather a curious manner. 
She went frequently to her bed-room during the day, and when Mr. 
Leigh's housekeeper went up. she always found her rolled in a ball, 
apparently asleep; at last, a quantity of blue cloth was missed, and 
from the great jealousy that Mary showed about her trunk, suspicion 
fell upon her ; her trunk was searched, and the cloth found, nicely 



Captain Robinson on Labrador and Newfoundland. 

coQTerteil into sixteen pair of raoccassins, wbich she had made in her 
bed; two pair of children's stockings were also found, made of a 
cotton nightcap. Mr. Leigh had lost one; but Mary answered 
angrily, to all queations about her merchandise, ' John Peyton, John 
Peyton ;' meaning that he had given it her : at last, in the bottom of 
her trunk, the tassel of the cap, and the bit marked J. L., were found, 
wben, looking stedfastly at Mr. Leigh, she pointed to her manufac- 
ture, and said slowly, ' Yours,' and ran into the woods; when brought 
back, she was very sulky, and remained so for several weeks. The 
poor captive had two children, and this was probably the tie that held 
her to her wigwam ; for though she appeared, in many respects, to 
enjoy St. John's when she was taken there, and her improved habits 
of life, ehe, on the whole, but ' dragged a lengthened chain,' for all 
her hopes and acts appeared to have a reference to her return. She 
hoarded clothes, trinkets, and anything that was given her, and was 
fond of dividing them into sixteen shares. She was very obstinate, 
but was glad to be of any service in her power, if not asked toasiiist ; 
ehe was playful, and was pleased with startling Mr. Leigh, by steal- 
ing behind him softly ; her perception of anything ridiculous, and her 
general knowledge of character, showed much archness and sagacity : 
an unmarried man seemed an object of great ridicule to her. When 
she was taken to St. John's, on entering the harbour, she said to 
Messrs. Leigh and Peyton, ' You go shore, Mr. Leigh — you go shore, 
John Peyton — when go shore, no eniamoose (mfe or woman), ha, ha, 
ha, ha !' She was quite indifferent to music, did not seem to per- 
ceive it; liked exhibiting herself to strangers, and waa very fond of 
putting on and taking off all the dresses, ribbons, and ornaments 
that were given her. Mr. Leigh once drew on a bit of paper a boat 
and crew, with a female figure in it, going up a river, and stopping a 
moment at a wigwam, and described the boat, freighted as before, 
returning. Mary immediately applied the hieroglyphic, and cried out, 
' No, no, no, no.' He then altered the drawing, taking the woman 
oat, and leaving her behind at the wigwam, when she cried very joy- 
fully, ' Yes, yes, good for Mary.' A variety of rep resent ations, more 
obscure than this, she perceived with great quickness, and had much 
satisfaction in the mode of communication 

"She remainedashort time at St. John's, and acquired such facility 
in speaking EngUsh, that sanguine hopes of conciliating and opening 
a communication with her tribe, through her means, were entertained ; 
and when Sir Charles Hamilton despatched Captain Buchan to the 
Bay of Exploits, to make the attempt, it was hoped for this poor de- 
voted handful of Indians that the measure of their sufferings was full, 
and that they were at last to be brought within the influence and 
blesatugs of civilization and Christianity. It was ordered ochenvise ; 
the change of dress, or change of living, or whatever it may be, that 
operates so fatally on savages separated from their native habits, 
spared not poor Mary. She left St. John's with a bad cough, and 
died of consumption, on making the Bay of Exploits, aged 84. Cap- 
tun fiuchan, after a laborious march, reached the wigwams, bnt 



!_ 



1218 Captain Robinson on Labrador and Newfoundland. 



found them empty; and he deposited there the coffin of Mary, with 
ber presents, dresses, tnoccassins, &c. The experiment, I think, was 
hazardous ; the Indians, on returning, may possibly perceive the 
truth, or they may, as more in accordance with tdeir past experience, 
fancy poison, insult, or any of the barbarities practised on their fore- 
fathersy the tradition of which they carefully preserve." 

- — ^- - ■ 

Vocabulary of the Language of the Nativet of Newfoundland ; 
procured by the Rev. J. Iteighy from Mary March, a Native 
IVoman, taken up the Bay of Exploits by Mr. Peyton, in 
March, 1818. 



Arms 
Arrow 



memayet 
dogemat 



Boy bukashamesh 

Breast begomot 

Bonnet abodonce 

Beaver mamshet 

Boat or vessel adothe 
Buttons or money, agamet 



Berries 

Blankets 

Bear 

Blood 

Beat 

Bite 

Blow the nose 

Birch rind 

Body 

Back 

Baked apples 

Clothes 
Codfish 



bebidigemidie 

manovorit 

gwashavet 

izzobauth 

buhashowite 

bashudite 

shegamit 

boyish 

haddabothie 

possont 

abidemashick 

ihingyam 
bobboosoret 



Cattle, cows, & horses, nethabeat 
Cat (domestic) abidesook 



Cat (martin) 

Canoe 

Cream jug 

Come hither 

Candle 

Caplin 

Cry 

Comb 

Cold 

Chin 

Cut 

Comet 

Currents 



abidish 

japathook 

motheryet 

kooret 

shaboth 

shamorh 

matheothice 

edrathin 

moidewsee 

toun 

odisuit 

anin 

shamye 



Deer 

Deer*8 horns 
Dog 
Drawing knife 



osweet 
megorun 
mammasmeet 
moeshwadet 



Dog-wood (moun-Lj^j^^^ 

tarn ash) J 
Duck boodowit 

Ducks and drakes, howmeshet 
Dancing 
Dirt 

Eye 

Egg 

Eat 

Eyebrow 

Elbow 

Ear 

Fire 

Fish-hook 

Feathers 

Fall 

Fork 

Fishing-line 

Flying 

Fur 

Girl 

Gloves 

Gun 

Glass 

Go out 

Gull 

Gimlet 

Grindingstone 

Gunpowder 

Goose 

Good night 



budiseet 
methie 

givinya 

debine 

odvit 

marmeuck 

moocus 

mooshaman 

wood rat 

adothook 

abobidress 

hoshet 

ethewroit 

edat 

meaoth 

peatha 

emamooset 

obsedek 

adamadret 

hadibirt 

enano 

assow 

quadranuck 

aquatlioont 

beatothunt 

odeusook 

bethiote 




Captain Robinson on Labrador and Neic/oundland. S19 



Get tip 


ganyep 


Nails 


quish 


Gapinif 


abemite 


Neck and throat iedesheet 


Groaning 


eheashit 


Needle 


doBomite 


Goosebeny 


jiggamint 










Oil 


eraet 


Hand 


memet 


Otter 


edree 


Hair 


dronna 


Ochre 


odement 


House 


mammateek 


Oar 


poodybeae 


Hammer 




Oakum 


mushabauth 


Heart 


begodor 






Hare 


odu sweet 


Pin 


dosomite 


Husband 


zathrook 


Partridge 


zosweet 


Hoop 


uoin. 


Puppies 




Head keauthut gonothin 


Pitcher cap 


manune 


HiccnpB 


mudyrat 


Pigeon 


bobbodisfa 


Hatchet 


thingaya 


Puffin 




Ice 


ozeru 


Rocks 


ahune 


Indian (red) 


beathook 


Rain 


bathue 


Indian cup 


schucododimit 


Running 


hothamashet 


Iron 


mowazeenite 


Rowing 


osavate 






Rat 


gadgemish , 


Knife 


nine 


Raspberries 


gauzadun 


Knee 


hodamishit 






KneeliDR 


abusthibit 


Shoes 


moosin 


Kis, 


widumite 


Smoke 


besdic 






Seal 


bedesook 


Lobster 


odjet 


Stinking seal 


mattic bedesook 


Lamp 




Spoon 


adadiminte 


Lord bird 




Seen ktua and maugerewius 


Leg 


aduse 


Sit down 


athep 


Lead 


goosheben 


Sleep 


isedoweet 


Up 


coish 


Saw 


deddoweet 


Lie down 


bituwaite 


Sails 


ejsbathook 


Louae 


thusebeet 


Shovel 


godawick 


Lightning 


barod 


Stockings 


gasset 
Bedisoni 


Leaves 


madyna 


Sword 


Lightning 


wieeth 


Salmon 








Silk handkerchief, ejibiduUh 


Man 


bukashaman 


Scissors 


oaegeen 


Moutli 


mamesook 


Sore throat 


anadrick 


Moon kins and wasfaewiuafa 


Snipe 


aoDJet 


Musquito 


shema bogosthoe 




thoowidgee 






Seal sunk 


aparetia bedeosok 


Nose 


geen 


Scratch 


bashubet 


Net 


giggarimanet 


Scollop 


gowet 


Necklace, beads 


bethee 


Sneeiing 


adjilh 


Nwht and dark 


was hew 


Singing 


awoodet 


Nipper 


bebadrook 


Shoulders 


momezeraetbon 




Teeth 

Trap 

Trouwra 

Troat 

Titian 

Tnrr 

linker 

Tickle 

Thank jon 

Thigh 

Tongnc 

Thread 

Throw 

Thunder 

Thumb 

Woman 
Water 
Watch 
WooirafAar 



Captab Battbolonew 4M li« 



Wife 

Walk 

Wanniag jroatsd f. 

Wind 

Wolf 

Wood 

Whortle beiriet 



bofomet onUiennajTt 
rihehatlKxxit 

dottcxneiah 

grtheyel 

geonet 

ooihook 

kadniahnile 

thine 

ilWeena 



meroobish 
pugathoite 
barodiisick 
pooeth 



Yawmng jibeath and 



One 
Two 
Three 

Four 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 

Nine 

Ten 

M»n land 
Islandi 




oduwok 
odooaook 

veoth odne 
tbeamt 

gnoxewook 



II. — PriraU Journal iepl on board H.M.S. Levm, wlum tur- 
veying the CoomI of Africa. Bj Captain Bartholomew, R.N. 
I8S0. MS., pp. l6l. 
This also ia a founeeo jears old Journal, presented to d>e aocietj 
b; a friend of tlie gallant author, who died on the serrice on iriiich 
he was then employed, tct; early in its progiess. We are again, 
accordingly, compellnl to select a few extracts, instead of either 
giving the Journal at length, or a detailed analysis of its entire 
contents : — 

" Aeobbs. — &. Mitkaefi. — Tradition may have handed down, and 
cimmstances may lead to an ides which is entertained by many, that 
the island of St. Michael was originally a plain oorered with beantifbl 
trees, rich verdure, and aromatic plants. At present, howeTer, it 
consists of a namber of moantaios, hills, and valleys, none of which 
are primitive, but evidently the production of volcanic eruptions. The 
conical figure of tfae mountains, and the cavity at their eummits, the 
accumulation of lava, scorise, and volcanic sand, dcmoostrata their 
production by fire. 



Axore and Cape Verd Islands. 

" Externally the volcanoes appear extinguished, but they are aup- 
poied to exist internally, of which indeed the fountains in the Valley 
of Farnan and other parts of the island are evident symptoms. This 
valley is about twenty-five miles north and east of Porto del Gardo, 
and has on its south-east side a small village called Carcuis or Par- 
nan. On B. small elevation about a quarter of a mile square are a 
number of hillocks, on which the action of fire is every where evident. 
The minerals on the spot are pyrites, lava, pumice, marble, and clay 
of different colours, ochre, iron ore, and calcareous earth mixed with 
alum and sulphur. There are also a number of boiling fountains, and 
many cold springs. The hot springs form several streams, and in 
their course they smoke and emit sulphureous steams ; in a calm day 
the vapour is seen rising to a great height. The largest of these 
boiling fountains, called the Caldeira, is nearly thirty feet in diameter, 
but its depth is unknown. Its water is scalding hot, and in a coustant 
state of ebullition, emitting a vapour highly sulphureous, and smelling 
like burnt gunpowder; its taste communicates an acescent pungency, 
and its sediment is a clayey substance of a light blue colour. At a 
few yards' distance, behind a ridge of lava, and at the bottom of a 
projecting rock, another boiling fountain is called the Forga or Forge ; 
this is rftnked as the second fountain : its surface is seldom visible 
from the dense sulphureous vapour ; it boils ivith great violence, and 
sends forth a great noise, throwing up quantities of a fine glutinous 
blue clay mixed 'with vapour, which is scattered about and observed 
lo encrust the rock and other neighbouring objects. These are the 
principal fountains, but there are several others ; and vapour is seen 
issuing out of the crevices of rocks in many places. By applying the 
ear to some of the fissures, the noise of boiling water is distinctly 
beard ; and from others the water is at intervals squirted out, scalding 
those who may unwarily approach too near. The temperature of these 
fountains is not uniform : some are as high as boiling heat, others 
more moderate, and some very cold ; the appearance of the water in 
tome is limpid and transparent, in others turbtd, of awhiCe or reddish 
hue, all generally depositing a red or blue clayey substance. Crystals 
of alum and sulphur are here found in abundance, some of them beaU' 
liful and curious ; and when the vapour issues and exudes from the 
chinks and fissures of the rock, some of the crystals are from one to 
two inches long. A small river runs through this valley, and on its 
edge in several places there are hot springs, wth at times a per- 
ceptible ebullition in the middle of the stream from these springs. 
This river deposits an ochrey sediment on the stones and pebbles of its 
bed; in some places the sediment is of a green colour, not unlike 
martial vitriol; and the bushes on the banks are encrusted over with 
■alphur and alum. 

'* The laste of these waters varies. In some it is that of a strong 
impregnation of the vitriolic acid, in others of the carbonic ; in others 
the taste is aluminous or ferruginous, while others again are perfectly 
insipid. The country-people in cooking save fuel by those fountains. 
They place their culinary utensils over the hot springs, or upon some 



2Q.'2 Captain Bartholomew on the 

of tlie steaming crevices ; and their cattle by instinct or experience 
approach these places to clear themselves of vermin, by standing in 
the sulphureous steam. 

** Not far from the hot spriuffs is a hill of pumice-stone from which 
several springs of cold water nse, and at the bottom of the hill form a 
small run or watercourse. In this short distance some of them 
deposit a pale yellow ochrey sediment, and others one of a higher 
colour. Their taste is sharp and acescent, their smell ferruginous ; 
the pungency in some is excessively penetrating, and in a glass they 
sparkle like champagne. About a quarter of a mile to the westward 
are a number of other hot springs, and this place is the resort of those 
who use the waters. Farther up the valley are others of the same 
description. About a mile to the westward also there is a small river 
named Sanguinolenta (or Bloody River) from its red colour, on the 
banks of which are several cold springs of a strong ferruginous, 
acescent taste and smell ; and to the southward, beyond a range of 
mountains, and about a mile distant, are a number of hot springs, in 
which the same variety is observable as among these described. At 
this place there is one about twenty-four feet in length, and twelve 
in breadth ; it boils with great force, making much noise ; and near 
it are several cold springs, which are in the same state of ebullition 
as the hot fountains. They have a sharp acescent taste and smell, 
and are highly impregnated with the atrial acid. 

'' St. Michael's has commerce with Lisbon, England, America, and 
Russia. To Portugal it sends com, pulse« poultry, cattle, and vege- 
tables, which are paid for in tobacco, sugar, coffee, trinkets, dispen- 
sations, indulgences, images of saints, reliques, &c. About seventy 
vessels are sent annually to England with fruit, receiving wooUens, 
hardware, earthenware, and various necessaries. From America they 
receive boards, staves, lumber, rice, fish, pitch, tar, iron, and a variety 
of India goods, which are paid for in ivine ; and the trade for Russia 
is similar with America. They have also a ready-money trade with 
Madeira and the Canary Islands for corn, cattle, and poultry. 

*' St Michael's contains 1 city, 5 towns, 54 parishes, and 80,000 
inhabitants. They have of regular infantry, 250; artillery, 100; 
militia, three regiments, 3000 ; and ordenanza, or levtSe en masse, 
about 6000 men. The dress of the principal inhabitants of both sexes 
is nearly the same as the English ; but the male peasantry have a 
singular covering for the head : it consists of a convex crown, like 
some of the English leather hats, with a front like a shove], and 
turned up like a horn on each side. It is in breadth about eighteen 
or twenty inches ; and a flap hangs down from the crown, buttons 
under the chin, and covers the shoulders. This dress is peculiar to 
the islanders of St. Michael. The respect shown an Englishman here 
is great, every person bows and lifts his hat as he passes. 

** The ladies are not much seen abroad, although it is reported that 
they do not stay much at home. They are, however, kind in the extreme 
and attentive to strangers, and their hospitality keeps pace with their 
great attention and politeness. 



Aiore and Cape Verd hlatids. 223 

" I regret much the badness of the weather when I last called 
at St. Michael's. I had previously arranged that a conveyance 
should be in readinew as soon as the ship carae off the neareat point 
to the Valley of Parnan, to carry up a number of bcakera to be filled 
with water of the different fountains to bring to Bnglaod. to be 
rhemjcaily analyzed, but the above -men tinned cause precluded any 
attempt of the lund. Their efficacy in healing many disorders is well 
known io the Azores ; and were they butter known in England, they 
would probably be resorted to there also, 

" Terceira is a beautiful islaud, and, like all the other Azores, of 
volcanic formation. The climate is delightful, the air generally clear 
and serene, and the soil so prolific, that almost every European 
and tropical plant grows on it. The face of the island is diversified 
with volcanic hills, and gardens, pastures, vineyards, and orangeries 
serve to enrich the lundscape. Fine roads are cut to every part of 
the island, by which means travelling is much easier in it than in any 
other ; and the island appears bettor adapted fur invalids than Ma- 
deira or any of the western island?, as they are thus able to take 
exercise and recreation. The capital of the Azores, aa wtli as of the 
isluDi), is Angra, the residence of tlie civil governor ; but the histiop 
resides at St. Michael's. The population of the island is estimated 
at 40,717 {this account I was officially favoured with, by permission 
of the governor), of which one-tenth part are priests; and the town 
of Angra is said to contain of the above uumber 8000 inhabitants. 
About four thousand pipes of wine are considered to be made 
annually on the island, but thia quantity is distilled into brandy ; 
what wine is consumed is bruught«from Fayal. There are six con. 
vents for nuns, and one for married women when their husbands are 
from home ; there are twenty- two parishes, and tliirty large churches, 
with smaller ones to a great exlem, of which I could get no certain 
information. The present governor has done much for the islani^, 
by causing good road? to be cut, and compelling the proprietors of 
ground to let out such land as ihcy do not cultivate themselves to 
the poor, for what it will bring. This has. within these few years, 
enriched the island, by raising much more corn than fonnerly, and 
given scope to industry. The inhabitants are civil and attentive to 
strangers ; and cleanlier in their [wrsons than at Madeira. They are 
ftn innocent, good, and honest people ; and although oppressed by 
their ecclesiastical establishments, they seek distinction by industry 
rather than arms, preferring the olive-branch to the laurel, and sub- 
mitting to a yoke which is most galling. The houses in the town 
are weil-built, the streets broad and paved; but a stranger is annoyed 
in passing, from ihe number of pigs that feed there, and the noise of 
the musical carts. Every house has several of those animals, and 
hnving no back ground, they are set loose in the streets, and the 
passenger has often to stop until he clears his way, or is obliged to 
pass round these animals. And the cart-wheels and axle are fixed 
together, so that in turning round, the friction of the axle with tho 



I 
I 



L 




fiM Captain Bartholomew on the 

body of the cart makea a great noise, which thtor ovniera like, as 
they say It che«ra the bullocks, and makes them go quicker. It is, 
however, a great annoyance to a stranger, fur wheo two or three of 
them are together, as is often the case, the noise is so great that two 
travellers cannot converse together ; they cannot be heuil when these 
vehicles are near. 

*' The island of Terceira contiuns one city, called Angra; three 
towns, namely, Praya, St. Sebastio, and New Town ; also twenty- 
two parishes (as by official information, 5th Nov. 1819): viz. — 
Nunei of Ptriihei. Papulatioo, 



The Cathedral 

Conception .... 

St. Peter's .... 

St. Lucie .... 

St Mathus de Colheto 

St. Bartholomew 

St. Barbara .... 

St. George's, of the Twelve Rivulets 

St. Rock, near Altars 

St. Peter's, near the Biscoutes . 

St. Beatrice, of the Four Rivers . 

Our Lady of Anza Olva 

IMvine Holy Ghost of New 

St. Michael's of Lagas 

Our Lady in the Fount . . 

Mother of the Holy Cross in Praya 

St. Catharine, opposite to Praya 

St. Barbara, Bastard Fountain 

Mother of St Sebastio 

St. Anthony of Jew Port . 

St. Peter of Uttle River . 

St Bento near Angra 

Total . 



454S 
3145 
8505 
2094 
1243 
1395 
SSIO 
1333 
1839 
1510 



958 
3594 
1830 

820 
1301 
1802 
1871 
1013 

40,7I7 



" The yearly proiluce of Indian corn, wheat, and a trifling quantity 
of barley, is on an average about 720,000 bushels ; mth 4000 pipes 
of wine, and 50 tons uf Orchilla weed ; though, if pains were taken 
to collect it, there would be more. The military force consists of 
1200 regular troops, 2000 militia, and, in case of an attack, the inha- 
bitants are all obliged to arm themselves with a long pike (or what 
they drive the bullocks with, being a goad about ten feet long), from 
the age of fifteen to sixty years. 

" People of property, and those in business, both men and 
women, imitatt the English in dress ; the males of the lower class 
wearing short jackets, with trousers or smallclothes, and blue cloth 
caps of a curious sliape, trimmed with red or hrown j the females 
wearing black bombaain skirts, and a hood attached, which they pull up 
over their heads, and which serves as a cloak when they walk abroad ; 




Azore and Cape Verd Islands. 



in the liouse it is tliro\Tn back. The women in general are rather 
hsodsorae, but have an awkward and loitering gait. 

" The custom at table is the same as observed in moat ptirts of 
Portugal : all the different articles are cut up, and being put on sepa- 
rate plates or dishes, are handed round, one after another. Ladies 
and g^entlemen therefore help them.ielTes ; and I have seen some per- 
sons help themselves on one plate from four or five different diahes. 
Every one fills his glass or tumbler, and drinks what he pleases ; the 
cloth is kept on the table until the company nae, and very little wine 
is taken after dinner, 

" The coast round Tereeira is high and craggy, excepting in a few 
places; and those accessible are well defended with batteries; round 
the bay and town of Angra, in particular, the fortifications are strong 
and well-buiit. 

'' In coming from the eastward, the landabout Porto Prava is first 
made ; and in advancing towards Angra, the Frailea, four rocks above 
water, and Goat Islands, are next seen. The latter appear to have 
been at first one island, of volcanic production, but by some subse- 
quent earthquake, the middle part has disappeared, leaving a narrow 
passage of a cable's length in breadth, and liventy-fuur fathomt jft 
depth. Their former union seems evident by comparing the strata on 
both aides of the passage, the layers of the different substances agree- 
ing in quality, colour, and dip of direction. Between these islands 
and the main there is an excellent channel, upwards of two miles in 
breadth, with a clear sandy bottom, and fifteen fathoms water ; and 
in case of emergency any ship can anchor. Between Goat Islands 
and the Frailea, the passage is two miles in breadth, with nine fathoms 
water, and is clear from all danger; but to the southward, about 
three-quarters of a mile, there is a rock under water, which must be 
carefully avoided. The Bay of Angra ia open to all winds from 
S.S.W. to E. ; and the safest months for lying there are June, July, 
August, and September, when the winds from north to west prevail ; 
but there are more vessels in October, November, and December, 
than any other months, for fruit. They moor to the northward of 
Port St. Antonio, which is on the west and north side of. the bay, 
with three and four anchora ahead ; and vessels farther out, on the 
least appearance of its coming to blow, run out to sea. 

" Tofiiio's plan of the bay is correct. I made the south pillar on 
Brazil Mount to be in 38° 33' l7" latitude, and 27° 1*' longitude, by 
the mean of three chronometers." 

" CiFB Vkrd Islands. — Fueijo. — Thia island is fertile, and produces 
a great quantity of Indian corn, beans, and all sorts of refreshments. 
Excellent cloths are made here for the trade of Guinea, and for the 
nse of various inhabitants of the other islands. The climate although 
warm is healthy, on account of the rarefaction of ibe air caused by the 
volcano. There are several beaches for boats ; but the only anchorage 
for vessels of burthen is on the west side of the island, in the bay 
called Luz, The Leven's anchorage was the north point of the island 

VOL. IV. Q 




iS^ Captain Bardiolomew on the 

y. icr'E.: tfxtreme xmth. point S •S°E.; north flag-staff N. 6b°E.; 
«)u:h ia;:-«uif-?.2l^ ii.,:nCwentr-fiTe^boais soft sand, nearly ahreadt 
lit U:e well, jniiuff afaoredne quarter of a mili:. The water is not good, 
anii :s also scarce, the well being down on the beach, which is asoit 
bluett land, alcfaoogh th« water comes from tbe rock. When there is 
s ht|{b Mn'or surf, tt breaks over, as well aa penetrates through, the 
nnd. iuid renden the water brackish. Tbe inhabitants, as neil as 
dieir caxtie, have to descend a precipice of eighty feet in height by a 
p«th c-ut b a z^ag direction in tbe rock to get to this well. 

" Brara-^-This island is rerr high, and could be seen at a great 
dB&ince, were it not constantly covered by a dense atmosphere. The 
cUmate is however temperate, healthy, and fertile ; and the island 
pruduLiN a large quantity of Indian com, beans, and all sorts of re- 
fireskments. but little or no wood. The anchorages are four in 
Bumber, but not one of them safe for vessels of burthen ; only small 
TvswU consequently frequent them for orchilla and grain. 

"Thtrre arc two small islaods on the north-east side of Brava, 
called Rombo or Homes Islands, distant about five or six miles. These 
blands are nearly joined with other small rocks, some parts being 
above water, and forming a crescent. Between the westernmost 
island, which is lofty and having a peak on it, and the next rocks, is a 
passage of about half a mile wide, and having twenty-five fathoms 
water ; and the easternmost island has a reef of rocks which extends 
nearly two miles partly under water, and in an E.N.E. direction. 
To the southward there is a clear passage betneen the above and the 
north end of Brava : the Leven at the west end of this channel had 
soundings eighty fathoms ; the state of the weather did not allow her 
to pass entirely through, but, from observation, in a caxe of emer- 
gency any ship may take the passage, keeping about mid-channel. 

" St. Vineaif. — This island is mountainous and much exposed to 
ivinds. There are plenty of cattle, but very lean, in the dry sea^in 
many dying for want of food. The island produces orchilla and some 
cotton ; but there are no refreshments to be found at it, the inha- 
bitants being mostly supplied ivith com and fruit from St. Antonio. 
There is an excellent bay called PorCo Grande, one of the largest and 
safest in the Cape Verd Islands. Vessels can anchor at any depth 
from five to eighteen fathoms, perfectly sheltered from all winds ; and 

Slenly of good wood is to be got here ; hut the water that is obtained 
rora a wml on tbe north side of the bay is not good, especially in the 
dry season, and is also scarce. There is another bay on the south- 
west side, called St. Pedro, which is of a middling size, with a fine 
vitiidy beach ; and vessels can anchor here in ten fathoms, near the 
midd'to of the bay, or rather more to the westward. It is a good 
niu'horngc in the dry season, and the inhabitants say there is plenty 
of it>""l «"uter and wood. The American vessels employed in the 
whnli'-riRliiTy frequent this bay. 

" Tlu" itillcrs were setting high at the time I was there, which pre- 
vciilcd uw from examining it carefully. There is another anchorage 
uii tliv t-utt couBt, called Do Pria da Gatta, with a sandy beach, near 




AxOre and Cape Verd Ithxnda. S27 



which vessels may nnchor in six fathonia ; the bottom ia clear, but 
neea sets directly in when the ivinii is either north-east or soul h- 
eaat, the islaud of St. Lui'ie sheltering betneen these points. This 
bay and coast are uithout wood, water, or inbabitSDls. 

" Si. Antonio. — ^Thia island is very high, abounding with springes ; 
and, from its being so mountainous, it has continued dew-s, causing a 
great production of com, and all sorts of refreshmenU. Much orchilln 
is also gathered here, and cotton in great abundance ; by means of 
the latter a good trade is carried or with the coast of Guinea, but the 
roads, on account of tlie mountains, are miserable. The coast oil 
around is clear, and although there are not any ports in the island, 
there are several anchorages, 

" Do Porto daPonta do Sol. — This cannot be termed a port (although 
the Portuguese give the name of port to any place in which small 
craft can anchor) ; it is only a part of the coast where the bottom 
is good. To this place, however, all vessels to and from the island 
trade ; the custom-house and warehouses are also here, situated on K 
pcnnt of land, to the westward of which is the anchorage, about three- 
quarters of a mile from the shore, sheltered from the wind from west 
to east by the south ; and although the N.N.E. and N.E. winds blow 
directly in, from the height of the mountains they are not felt, only 
causing a heavy swell which occasions vessels to roll much. Tha 
landing place is excellent, being a natural basin in the rock ; its en- 
trance is about eighteen or twenty feet wide, and is there so narrow, 
that you must give the boat good way, and then toss up the oars in 
passing the entering points, not having length for them; it then 
widens, and no sea can affect a boat lying there. Good water is 
obtained here, end every sort of refreshment at a reasonable rate ; 
wood also can be procured, but it is brought down from a great dis- 
tance. The town in which the governor resides is about three miles 
from this point, the road to it being cut out of the rocks in many 
places. To the westward of this, several miles, is a large bay, called 
the Port of the Mountain of \Vheat, from a large mountain at the 
back of it ; it has a sandy bottom with small pebbles. Vessels can 
anchor in from eleven to twelve fathoms in safety any time of the 
year, and water and wood can bo had, but few refreshments, owing ta 
the great distance from the village, and there being no inhabitants 
except a feiv shepherds who occasionally reside here. 

" BagofTarrafal. — This is lariie and spacious, having a black sandy 
bottom. Vessels anchor in twenty fathoms, three-quarters of a 
cable's length from the shore, sheltered from the north-east and 
south winds and sea; and when the wind comes to the westward of 
south or north, from the extreme high land it is always a calm in 
the bay, the wind never blowing home, oniv occasioning a swell to 
5*1 in. 

" The Leven's anchorage was in fortv fathoias ; North Point Bav, 
N. 11" W, ; South Point, S. ■17° \V. ;' the well or watering-place, 
N. So" E. ; distant three cables' length from the shove. Here is the 
Iwiit wAt«r ia till the Cape Veid Islands ; it cornea from the mouni 




■THr-wn BHtbotooKW on Ike 

i THu ^1 the Tcur, in a ravine ; and there are 
^•irti^.M^it. witii:i) arv rootinually Icept full, persons being- 
^, V "«.<■<* " '*^ ■-•»••». iu tf» «Teiit of ft very dry teason. A small 
xv ' > '->« ->*>^ '^** ^ iMvch, snd when a vessel calls for ivatcr, her 
^s.vv ..t. ■^Litiii Cwth* well, the water is then turned off from the 
v-y> <,»«•. •uur, which ta about three-quarters of a mile distant, and 
.t«K>.>4'.>i(; u A twgidar run cut in the rockR, it fills the well regularly 
V 'bk -i:^!'"-' vou empty it ; and a line-of-battle ship may complete 
i«.v<. i^> Ikt wkter. Having an order from the governor for the 
<kA>Vk. I Mtl unly to victual four men who superintend ; but they 
u«ito' :iMiviMiit-vessels pay for it besides. Tbe charge, bowever, is 
■V'^ittw. WouJ is brought down by the natives : it is said to be 
yijyii, MC 1 did not see any of it. Refreshments can be also had 
'K'i.^i !>uc *>u account of its being nearly fourteen leagues from tbe 
^uU^^i tbuy &r« not abundant. A ship touching there should call at 
tVtut iivl, she could there be supplied with bullocks, sheep, poultry, 
luul truit, at a low price, get an order for the water, and proceed here, 
luA lUichoring at Point So), only standing off and on. Thus, in one 
lUty, overyChing could be got down she required. Refreshments can, 
iwvorthelees, be obtained at Tarrafal, but the people are dilatory and 
unurbitant. I nuver experienced water to keep so well, nor so clear, 
at that I got here. 

" St. Lucie is of a middling height, and there is a bay on the south- 
west end where small vessels may anchor ; it is sheltered from all 
{■oints excepting south and south-east, and has a sandy beach ; the 
anchorage, small pebbles and sand. In the middle of the bay is a 
amall island, with the ruins of a village on it; but the island is 
DOW totally deserted, only fishermen .frequenting it. There are many 
turtle here, and much orchtlla is gathered, as also some cotton, which 
had been formerly planted, butis now in a wild state. The channel 
betn-een this island and St. Vincent is not foul, as represented on tbe 
charts; 1 entered it from both sides, and sent boats in all directions, 
but no rocks were to be found ; and in the mid-channel, halfway 
through, the least water was fourteen fathoms. 

" Bronco. — Between this island and St, Lucie the Leven lay at 
anchor several days, during the time we were surveying th« island 
and exploring tbe channels. Her position was, extremes of St. 
Lucie, N. 44''W. toN. 30°E. ; centre of Branco, S. 7° E. ; extremes 
of St. Nicholas, from S. 72° E. to S. 45° £. ; extreme point of St. 
Vincent, N. 60° W.; in eleven fathoms, hard and white sandy bottom. 

" This island is high and rugged ; has a well on it, and some 
decayed small wood ; and on the south-east side a long sandy spit 
runs out; but the rollers were so violent it could not be examined. 
I attempted landing twice, but was obliged to abandon the design. 

" Ra'io is low, the salvage of the coast steep and roclcy ; the land- 
ing is, therefore, difficult when there is any wind. This island is 
barren, inhabited only by birds; and between it and Bra nco, about 
one-third off the former, ii a coral shelf, in the form of a house-roof, 
running S. 5.W. and N.N.E., having on its shallowest part six 




Azore and Cape Verd Inlands, 



fathomB, and deepening: gradually on the west to fifteen fathome, and 
on the east to eighteen and tneuty fathoms. Although its ridge haa 
ko much vaier, however, the sea continuallj' breaks heavy on it, 
owiiig to a strong tide that Bets througli between these islands ; the 
passage is noiwiih standing safe. 

" fit. Nickolai is high, having two remaikable mountains on it, 
which can he seen at the distance nf fifteen leagues, one in the shape 
of a sugar-loaf, called the Peak of Trade, wliich is the middle of the 
island ; the other, on the west end of the isiynd, callfcd Monte Gordo. 
Tlie island is fertile, and refreshments can be procured at a low 
price; but water and wood are difficult to be obtained. There is a 
bay, which the natives call Carrical, known to the En^^lish by tlia 
name of Freshwater Bay, on the south side of the island, and about 
eight or nine miles from the east point. It is likewise, on some 
charts, termed Porto Preguica. This bay has a black sandy beach, 
over which, in a ravine, you wilt perceive a number of canes or 
green bushes. Vessels may anchor in ten fathoms, sheltered from 
the north-east winds. A few inhabitants reside here in EniaU huts. 
The water is got by digging a well in the beach. There is also a 
pond behind the beach, from which you can All ; but in high tides the 
sea breaks over, and renders the water in the pond brackish. 

" Refreshments can only be had at the old port ; this is situated 
eight or nine miles N. E. b. N. of Point Vemalhania, or Red Point, 
which is the southernmost point of the i!!land; and in it are the king's 
warehouses, and a little fort above them. At the distance of four 
miles from this fort is the town, where the governor and bishop reside. 
There is safe anchorage here for small vessels; but they cannot be 
supplied with water to a great extent. A well has been cut, distant 
from the sea-side two hundred fathoms, for the purpose of relieving 
any veseel in want, but the quantity it produces is but triSing." 



L 



HI. — Aide-Mcmoire du J'oyageur, ou Questions relatives a la 
G^graphie Physique el Folitique, ike. Paris, 1334. 12mo. 
pp. J 19. 
This work is published anonymously, but ia in fact ihe acknow- 
ledged production of one of the most active correspondents of the 
Royal Geographical Society. Colonel Jackson, of St. Petersburgb. 
It is a traveller's guide, or vade-mecuni, destined, as the title 
further expresses it, « I'lisage des personnes ijui veulent utilizer 
Imrs voyages ; and its object is thus of great interest and im- 
portance. 

In a preliminary discourse, or introduction, Colonel Jackson 
first traces the history of discovery : then comments on the benefits 
which have accrued to the human race by its progress ; and con- 
cludes with some observations on the qualities, original and nc- 
(^uired, wbich a scientific traveller ought to possess. Wc subjoin 




B3Q Aide'Mifmoire du Voyagair. 

a few extractB from this portion of the work, premising that we 
biTe in some degree altered the order in which we hate found 
them. The obaervations are important : — 

" Pour entreprendre les voyages avec fruit, U faut j ftre prjparif, 
et comprendre, dans toute leur (itendue, les devoirs qu'ils impoaent. 
Nous nous permettrons quelques details it ce sujet. 

" Une constitution robuste et une grande activit<! corporelle sont 
indig pen sables. II faut pouvoir supporter les extremes du chaud t^t 
du froid, du sec et de I'humide, les fatigues et les privations. II y a 
Bussi un Ige pour voyager ; trop jeune ou trop vieuz, on est trop 
iaible et de corps et d'esprit. 

*' Quani auz qualit^s morales, il faut rtJunir la douceur et la patience 
& I'llnergie et k la fennete, la prudunce k la bravoure. 

" Le voyage qu'on veut entreprendre doit 6(re pr^c^de' de IVtude 
des cartes et de la lecture des descriptions du pays qu'on se propose 
de visiter ; il faut surtout savoir la langue qu'on y parle ; toutefois, 
il arrive souveut qu'on ne pent apprendre d'avance I'jdiome d'un 
peuple ; on doit alors s'y adonner sur les lieux, et des Tarrivce, si le 
temps qu'on pent y passer permet d'en prendre la peine. 

" Le voyageur, dfes qu'il est arriv^, ne saurait raettre trop d'atten- 
tion k'se concilier la bienveillance des habitans. li ne doit jamais 
blesser lenr amour-propre, ni faire la satire de leurs mceurs : quelque 
ridicules que puissent 6tre leurs manitres, leurs superstitions ou leurs 
prt!jugi!s, il doit se garder de s'en moquer. S'il parvient ^ leur iu- 
spirer de la confiasce, JI peut se permettre, avec circonspection, de 
leur dt:n)ontrer les avantages qu'il pourrait y avoir, pour eux, h rn- 
nonifer & des usages barbares ou absurdes. En un mot, il doit cher- 
cher h se mifnager des amis partout oil il se trouve ; de cette manitre, 
U se fera ouvrir des sources d'informations qu'autrement il cher- 
cherait en vain, II serait tres avantag-eux au voyageur de posseder 
quelques connaissances en m^decine, surtout s'il doit sejounier quelque 
temps parmi des sauvages. Dans tous les cas, le dessin lui est neces- 
saire ; la musique m^me est un accessoire souvent plus important 
qu'on ne pense. 

" II faut encore ajouter que le voyageur dtrit, autant que possible, 
tout voir et tout verifier par Iui-m6me ; loraqu'il est forci^ de se con- 
tenter de descriptions qui lui sont faites par d'autres, il doit accueillir 
ces renseignemens avec beauroup de circonspection ; qu'il soit surtout 
exact dans ses recits : le vrai, quelque aride qu'il soit, vaut toujours 
mieux que le faux merveilleux, 

" Les voyages de dtfcouvertes ont ete tellement multiplies qu'il 
n'exisle plus de terres inconnues, si nous en excepCons quelques petites 
lies de peu de consequence, qu'on pourrait encore trouver ; mais il 
existe des regions immenses non explor^e.s, et des peuples sur lesquels 
nous n'avona, jusqu'i present, que des notions tres imparfaites. Mous 
sommes encore bien loin de connuitre toutes les productions de la 
terre, et I'intfirteur de I'Afrique, de la Nouvelle-Hollande, do La- 
brador, etc., peut renfermer dans les trois regnes, des richesses dont 
nooa u'avuns nolle id<!e. 




L 



*' Lea voyageurs qui visitent les pays civiliars de VEiirope doivent 1( 
faire H&ns le butdesavoir aii juste I'ctat des homiucset des choses dans 
ces coiitrvea ; lis doivent encore s'informerdeisprogrjiatoiijourscroisaans 
de« arts et dea sciences, et rapporter dans leur patrie tout ce qiie ees 
objets peuvent prt?sent«r dlonSressant. Ceux qui viailent des pays 
mains connus chercheront & t^tablir des relations cominercialea, ou au 
tnoinsdes rapports d'amitiequi puissenC ouvrir de nouveaux dcbouch&s 
k i'avantage rcciproque des peuples, et pour ie bien general da I'lm- 
manilf. 

" Mais le voyageur doit non-seulemenC pouvoir tout obset^er en 
detail, mais encore savoir etudier I'ensemble. Ce genrt de recherches, 
fait sur les lieux mCmeB, ne peut mauquer de prt^seater un grand 
ioterSt ; roais il exigu une vaste Erudition et une s^acite profonde. 

" Tout, dans le moode, est encbatnement de causes et d'effeta ; tout 
est action et ri^action. Une nation prospisre qiiand tout est national. 
L'agriculture doit &tre conforme au climat et au sol ; I r-du cation con- 
forme k i'intelligence des habitans ; les institutions doivent 6tre basdea 
tiir la constitution physique du peuple, et sur I'ctendue de da capacity 
morale. Or, savoir dr'ntSler, dans le vaste ensemble des causes et des 
effets qui ont prodult I'ttat present d'un peuple quelconque, I'utile et 
le nuisible. le vrai et le faux, lea principes et les consequences, tel est 
le talent d'un esprit supbrieur. Aussi voyons nous rarement de ces 
royages philosophiques qui approfondissent ces niatitires. 

" II faut commencer par ttudier I'lJtat actuel de cheque objet, et 
rechercher ensuite sil est lei qu'il devrait ftre par rapport k I'en- 
seoibie ; si tout est bien, 11 faut soigneuaement dcm^ler les principes 
qui ont produit un r^ultat si satisfaisaiil ; mais si, au contraire, 
t'harmonie ue regne pas dans I'ensenible, on doit tflcher de dtcouvrir 
la source de cedefaut dana I'organisation gfint'rale, proposer mGme 
un remfede convenahle. 

" On ne peut guire esptrer, il est vrai, que sur I'opinion isoli!e d'un 
voyageur, quelque inslruit, quelque sage qu'il paraisse, on modifiers 
les institutions d'un pays ; mais les lumieres qu'il rtfpand provoquent 
les recherches et les discussions, et souvent mCme il suflit de relever 
UD abus, d'indiquer un avantage quelconque, pour qu'on en profite 
aussitot. D'aiUeura, ce qui importe le plus, c'est d'^tendre le com- 
merce, et, avee iui, la richesse et la civilisation. Le voyageur, en con- 
s^uence, ne doit rien n(;gliger pour faire connaUre k aes compatriotes 
les avantages qu'ils peuvent tirer de reiations conimercialcB avec le 
paysqu'ildtfcrit, les points priiicipuuxofice commerce peut s'efTectuer; 
lea objets qui y (rouveraient le debit le plus assurb, et ceux qu'on 
aarait en ^change; les colonies et les cumptoirs qu'on pourrait y 
ct&blir, etc. II doit s'enqucrir, en m£me temps, de tous les procddcs 
avantageux suivis dans les arts, et qu'il serait facile dimiter. En ua 
mot, il faut qu il observe les homraes et les choses, et qu'il fasse tout 
ce qui depend de Iui pour ameliorer leur i^tat, par les renseignemens 
qu'il donrie et les niesures qu'il propose." — Disc. Prel., sxxiv. — xl. 

Having thus explained llie qualities and views with whicli sci- 
entific travellers aliuulil be eDilowed and animated, Colonel 



SS2 Aide-Memoire du Voyageur. 

Jackson proceeds in the body of lii^ work to suggest the in- 
quiries to be made by them. These he classes under the following 
heads. I. Tliose which relate to the country under examinalioti 
itself: viz., 1. Its geography, including its position, boundaries, 
length of frontier line, extreme length and breadth, extent of 
surface in square measures, general aspect, physical and political 
divisions; 2, Its hydrography, including a view of its springs, 
rivulets, torrents, rivers, canals, lakes, mars lies, conterminous 
seas, Sic. ; 3. Its meteorology, including its climate, winds, ten- 
dency to fogs, periodical rains, snow, greater or less abundance 
of dew, thunder and lightning, optical deceptions, other meteoric 
phenomena, Stc. 11. Those which relate to the productions of 
tlie country; 1. Animal; 2. Vegetable ; S.Mineral. 111. Such 
as relate to its inhabitants, as I. Their number, rale of increase 
or decrease, circumstances explanatory of either, their divisions, 
morals, moral and physical temperament, language, dress, food, 
inc. ; 2. Their habitations, the extent and interior distribution of 
these, and whether separating mates from females generally, their 
furniture, Stc. ; 3. The distribution of the population into towns, 
villages, hamlets, detached houses, &.C.; 4. Establishments, re- 
ligious, educational, charitable, medical, of police, military, com- 
mercial, industrial, scieiilitic, prisons, facilities for travelling and 
the transmission of letters, amusements, the court of the sovereign, 
system of government general and particular, &c. IV. Questions 
relating to the industry of the country; 1. Agricultural; 2. Ma- 
nufacturing; 3. Commercial. V. Special questions touching its 
more important institutions, as 1. Its relij^ion; 3. Form of 
government; 3. Legislative power; 4. Finances; 5. Their ap- 
propriation and expenditure; G. The transmission of letters and 
general service of the post. V I. Those which regard the state of 
science and literature in a country. Vll. Those whicii regard the 
fine arts in it. Vltl. Those which relate to its history. IX. 
Those which relate to its military capabilities. And X. Those 
which regard its foreign relations. 

On all these topics Colonel Jackson furnishes certain elemen- 
tary views from which his questions are deduced ; and in a small 
4tO'. volume annexed, he gives models of tables in which the in- 
formation obtained may be conveniently arranged. His work is 
thus decidedly an improvement on any previous traveller's guide 
which we have seen: yet its plan is not quite so complete as 
might be wished, notwithstanding; and we take the liberty, 
therefore, of also noticing, in all courtesy, m hat appear to us some 
deficiencies, for bis own future consideration, should his work, as 
it deserves, reach successive editions. 

We miss, in the first place, a preliminary essay on the principles 
and objects of statistical inquiry generally. Such an introductiou 



^ 




Aide-Memoire du Voyageur. 

would both give interest to t]!e details to which Colonel Jackson 
invites ibe attention of his lenders, and would ulbo, ^e think, 
probably modify his own anangement of tliem. Fur example, in 
such an essay, the importance of iicquiring a distinct notion of the 
means of internal cominunicBtioii enjoyed by any country could 
nut be overlooked ; and its canals would, consequently, -find a 
more appropriate place than as an item in its hydrography, with 
which, by ibe way, they can scarcely be said to have any con- 
nexion. Again, the geology of a country would scarcely, in such 
case, be iu name almost overlooked ; and in substance divided 
under two beads, the aspect of the country, and its mineralogical 
productions. Nor would the facilities for the transmission of 
goods be considered merely as an element in the appreciation of 
the commerce of a country, instead of entering largely into a 
consideration of the development of national character and 
manners. Nor would inquiries into the nature and extent of 
crime in a community be overlooked entirely in a list of interesting 
questions relating to it. Nor would sundry other instances occur, 
in which, as we think, the Importance of certain classes of details 
has either been over-estimated, or their application to the solution 
of much more important inquiries than those to which they imme- 
diately refer been unnoticed. 

Uut there is another want in the volume before us, the supply 
of which, though not perhaps strictly within its plan, we would 
earnestly recommend to the attention of its active and intelligent 
author; or to any other who may desire to compete with him in 
the composition of an improved traveller's manual. 

There are few things less understood by young travellers — ^and it 
is for them chiefly that such works are written — than, on the one 
hand, the amount of preparation requisite to enable them to do 
anything at all in the way of mapping, or otherwise describing the 
physical or moral aspect of a country ; and on the otiier hand, 
the maximum result which may be obtained from any given 
amount of such preparation, with suitable knowledge, diligence, 
and opportunities. For example, some may be instructed even by 
such elementary information as this, that in mapping with im- 
perfect instruments little can be done without starting from one 
fixed point, and terminating in another ; that a compass is neces- 
sary to lake bearings, and an instrument for measming vertical 
angles, with some sort of artificial horizon, or substitute for it, to 
determine latitudes ; but that with these instruments, and a careful 
observation of distance and true direction traversed, even longitudes 
may be computed with considerable accuracy; that there are 
various summary methods, as by a comparison between the velocity 
of light and sound, by which distances may be estimated : others. 



L 



G34 Aldc'Mcmoirc du J'oyageur. 

as by an examination of the length of shadows, or the angles at 
certain distances subtended by buildings, by which heights may 
be computed : others^ as the temperature of boiling water, by 
which the elevation above the level of the sea, or depression be- 
neath ity may be approximated to : others again i as the number 
of children in families, the comparison of legitimate and illegi- 
timate births, the standard of domestic morality, the number and 
character of prevailing crimes, the character of prevailing amuse- 
ments, the number of extremely aged individuals, &c., from which 
important statistical inferences may be drawn, even though- precise 
figures are not obtained. Not but that figures are always desirable, 
if possible : it may be said, indeed, that for the higher, that is to 
lay the economical purposes of statistical inquiry, nothing certain 
is known without them, and even with them, from hasty genera- 
lizations, or imperfect combinations of particulars, many supposed 
results are fallacious. But for the pnr()oses of description, which 
is all that geography directly contemplates, much is gained by the 
record even of these approximations ; and what young travellers 
«eem to us therefore to want, is not so much a minute detail of 
questions, four-fifths of which can only be answered in highly 
civilized states of society, where the importance of replies to them 
is fully recognized by the resident population, and where conse- 
quently little new or exact is left to be gleaned by an occasional 
traveller, — as an exact knowledge of the preparation and appli- 
ances requisite to enable them to devote their attention with ad- 
vantage to any particular branch of inquiry, — a just appreciation 
at the same time of the maximum result which may be obtained 
from any given amount of such preparation, and of the means by 
which such result may be made a maximum,-— comprehensive 
Tiews on the objects and purpose of statistical inquiries generally, 
—with such a classification of these as shall disentangle their 
intricacies, allowing individuals who cannot grasp the whole to 
choose their section, and at the same time exhibit the bearing of 
all on the one great point, which is ultimate in geography — the 
acquisition of an exact and comprehensive view of the physical 
and moral aspect and condition of any given portion of the human 
race. 

Such, at least, is our idea of what is wanting in a traveller's 
manual ; and we are persuaded that Colonel Jackson will readily 

tardon the freedom of these remarks, in favour of their intention, 
t is due to him, moreover, to add, that his work, as it is, may 
be confidently recommended as a highly useful companion to all 
intending travellers ; that the tables in it are well devised, and 
many of them original ; and that what we have above desiderated 
•re not so much omissions in his plan, as desirable features iq 



Aide-Mi'-moire du Voyaijelif, i58 

another and more exieiisive one. As a fmther example, also, of 
the assistance that may be derived from it, we subjoin the con- 
cluding paragraphs of the section on meteorology :— ~ 

" Pour nSsumer ce que nous avoris dit sur les mt't^ores de toute 
esptjce, jl faut remarquer que les notions que nous avons donnees sur 
chacun en particulier, font assez voir le genre d 'observations qu'ils 
exigent; mais leg faits \sol6s ne nous inBtruisent guere sur la m^- 
ttioroiogie gdnerale d'un pays, a\ sur la nature de son dimat; c'est 
ainsi que I'observation des phtnomeues que peut presenter un me- 
tSore quelconque n'a d'int^r6t qu'auCant quelle e^it U€e avec celle da 
toutes les autres circonstances mtlle'oriques qui I'accompagnent, qui ta 
pr^cirdent et qui la suivent. 

" Dans la plupart des villes de I'Europe, on tient des regttrea trfes 
exacts et trbs dctailles des ph^ooraeoes m^tcorologiquea. Les ob- 
servations doivent £tre soigueusement faites avec de bons instru- 
niens, et. ^ I'exception des ni^t^ores qui n'oot lieu que rareraent, on 
les observera tous trois foia par jour. On verra ci-deasoua la manier* 
de tenir ces regitres, et d'en deduire les rcsultats moyens. 

" Le tableau No. 2 montre la mauitre dont doivent Ctre enregt- 
trtfes les observations journalieres. Le thermometre sert ii indiquer 
le degri; de chaleur ou de froid de I'air, le barometre sa preasion, 
I'liygromctre son 6tat d'humidit6, ran^momttre la force et la direC- 
tion des vents, reudiom^tre la qualite de I'air, IVIectroscope le degrd 
et la nature de I't-lectricite donC I'air est charge, et les changemena 
qui surviennent pendant les oragea et le passage des nu^es. Cea 
iustrumens doivent etre tous de la meilleure construction, et bien 
comparables avec ceux en usage dans les principaux lieux oh se font 
des observations pareiUes. 

" On fera avec ees instrumens des observations soign^'es et exactes, 
trois fois par jour : le matin, k midi, ou plutOt k deux heures, et le 
soir; on les enrcgitrera a I'instant mtnie, chacune dans la colonne 
qui In! est destini:e. On marqiiera t^galemeot dans la colonne 
in I itu 1 £e e(a( rfu ci'e/, si le temps a el<; beau, eouvert, pluvieux, nei- 
geux, etc. Quant ^ la pluie, on observera la quantitt! qui en est 
tombee ou la quantite d'^vapo ration. Quelle que soil I'heure dont on 
ait fait choix pour les observations sur la pluie, il faut toitjours lea 
faire h. la m&me heure, alin d'avoir constamment la quantity de pluie 
ou d'^vaporation pour les vingt-quatre heures. Dans la colonne dea 
phenomenes particuliers, on plarera tous lea pht?nomenes, tel? que lea 
orages, le lonnerre, les arcs-en-ciel, les aurores boreales, etc. Et dans 
les remarques on indiquera tous les details qui meritent d'fitre notes, 
LeLi que I'apparence particuliere des nuages, la forme particuliere et 
U grosseur de la ne ige, de la grile, la duree et tous lex d&lails do 
I'apparence qu'auraient pr&teniet I'aurore boriiale, les tcmpCtes, etc. 

" Quant i Teudiomfetre, il faut observer que, comme des experiences 
r^iti^ri^es ont donnt dans tous Its Heux a-peu-piis les mfmes riS- 
niltats', il n'est gutre niScessaire, et il est meme rarement d' usage de 



" • SeloD le Uhnvalitr J>4*y, I'uir i1b I'Europr, d« I'ABiej de VAftinut, 



236 Aide-M^moire du Voyngeur, 

fairs des otservatJons suivies arec cet instrument; on ne s'en aert 
qu'ii des tipoques ou Ton a lieu de croire que dea i-v^nemens ou dea 
phenomenes parliculiers auraient pu influer aur la composilioii de 
I'air, et alora les r^siiltats de cts observations peuvent ftre conaigntis 
dans la colonne des remarques. On continuera journellement les 
observations de eette niani^re, et & la fin de chaque niois on fera le 
calcul de terines moyens, en s'y prenant de la nianiere siiivante. 

" Oa aiiditionne toutes les observations faites dans un mois avec le 
thermomfetre. sojt le nonibre de degrt;s 1430 ; on divise ensuite cette 
Bomme par le nombre d'observations qu'on aura faites, soit 90 (k 
raison de trois observations par jour), et on aura pour quotient 15,8 
degrds ; c'eat le ternie moyen de la clialeur pour chaque jour du nioia. 
Si dans un mois d'hiver on a des degrtis au-dessus et au-dessous du 
ternie de la congi^latiou, on fait deux sommes, I'une des degrds au- 
dessus de O", et I'autre des degrr's au-dessous, on reCranche la plus 
petite de la plus grande, et on diviae le reste par le nombre total des 
observations. Supposons que, la souatraction faite, il reste 14 degrca 
de froid k diviaer par 03, on ajoute un O ji 14 pour avoir des dixiemes 
de degrt'fi, et on divise 140 par 93 (nonibre d'observations si le mois 
avail 31 jours); par ce moj'en ontrouve que !e froid moyen a it€ 
de — 0,2°. La barre indique que les degres ou les fractions de degrfis 
sont au-dessous du ternie de la congelation, et le ztro suivi d'unc 
virgule marque qu'ii n'y a joint de degrta entiers, mais aeulement 
des dixiemes de degrts exprim^s par le chiffre qui auit la virgule. 

" Quant aux observations baromctriques, on commence par addi- 
tionner les lignes ; fi I'^gard des pouces, si le baromittre a t't^ pendant 
le raois entre 87 et 28 poutes, alora on n'op€rera que sur la somme 
des lignea; s'il a ^l& plusieura fois k SS pouces et au-del^, on comp- 
tera le nombre de fois, et on ajoulera autant de foia 12 lignes&la 
somme des lignes dcja additionnt'es; s'il a et^ plus souvent au- 
dessous de 88 pouces, on comptera le nombre de fois qu'ii a ttc au- 
dessoua de ce tcrme, et on retrancliera autant de fois 1 8 lignes de la 
summe dtjj^ trouvee. On divisera le reste par le nombre total des 
observations. 

" Pour avoir des tenncs moyens par rapport aux vents, on addi- 
tionnera ensemble toules les observations des vents qui ont le plus 
genferalement domint pendant le mois ; par exemple, ai on a remarque 
que le vent du nord a t'te le plus frtquent, on fera la somme des 
forces avec lesquelles ce vent a. souffle, et on divisera cette somme 
par le nombre de fois qu'ii a il6 observt'. Le quotient donncra la 



TAmJinque, ilifTen tioi pen diina Ik propaction dc lea infrrfiJieng. L'snalymde 
I'nit, ilout ou a. rempli un ballun da terra a !■ bnuttiu de aO,IIOO piedf au-ilntui 
ill! la luer, a ilonDt le mcme lesullnt quu I'liir prii a ta nicrace. On pourrut croiie 
que le |fai acide carbuniqui-, £liiat Iv tilua lourd de loua lea g», derrait le tiwuvcien 
pluB ^aiule ijuauliU, eiiiuu hcul i la aurface de la terrei mail De Sautiurc I'a 
Iruuvi au haut dii Mont-BUoc. La Pironie pourlant ii'u pit pu lu tniiiver >ur le 
|iic lie Ten£ri(fi]. On Iroiive dam leg Mcmoirn de Wnochttl'T 1« il£lail del mpe- 
rinnni qu'a faiics Dallou pour expliquet rtiumogiiieilj dc I'air atinunph^riqUB do 
tout Ivi clitniti et a loulei Iti hautvun.'' 



Aide-Memoire du VoyagetxT. 93? 

force moyenne avec laquelle le vent du nord (la vent rtgnant) a soufBe 
pendant le niois*. 

" Les observations de IVudiomStre el da IVIectroscope iradmettent 
guere un calcul de termes moyens ; tout te qn'on pent faire i eel 
^^ard est de noter ce que lea observations avec ces instrumens ont pu 
pritsenter de remarquable. 

" Pour IVcat du ciel on observera quelle esptce de temps a H£ la 
plus gtDerale pendant le mois. Ce sera le seul resultat qu'exigers 
ceite par tie. 

" Quant k la pluie et ^ I'evaporation, on fera tout simplement 
I'addition des quantit^s. Qnelques observaleurs ont I'uaage de dd- 
falquer ensuite la quantity d' evaporation de la quantitt! d'eau tombiie, 
mais c'est une operation qui ne meue b, aucun resultat utile ou exact ; 
car en kl^ la somme de I'dvaporatiun surpaase de beaucoup la quan- 
tite d'eau qui lombe, el en hiver c'est tout le contraire ; d'ailleurs ces 
sornmes ne peuvent jamais se balancer, puisqu'il tombe une humiditfe 
inappreciable en forme de rost^e. de brnine, etc., dont on ne tienl 
aucun compte, quant Ji la quaniite, et on calcule rarement comme 
eau la neige et la grfile qui tomhent, etc. On doit done, pour ce qui 
regarde la pluie et les obsBrvatioiis de I'almomelre, se borner an simple 
6nonc6 de la quantity de pluie qui est lombce durant le mois, et de 
I'cvuporation qui a eu lieu. Ce qui ne donne au reste qu'un aper^u 
general, et seulenient comparable de mois k mois, ou d'anni/e & 

" Des ph^nomtnes particuliers et des remarques partielles, on en 
fera un ri^sumfe ou une remarque g^nerale pour tout le mois. 

" Tous ces diffcrens resultats moyens obtenua, on les consignera, 
ainsi que les e^tr6^le^ des observations, dans un tableau semblablo 
an No. 3. 

" Dans la premiere colonne de ce tableau tntitulee moif, on meltra 
dans I'ordre de leur succession regulit^re les douze mois de Tannine ; 
dans la seconde, dale, on niettra la date du jour de chaque mois oil 
la cttaleur a ttt! au plus baut degrc ; et dans la troisieme, le degrc de 
cetle cbaleur tel qu'on la trouvera marquee dans le tableau No. 2. 
Ensuite, dans la quatrieme et dans la cinquieme colonne, on mettra 
la date du jour et le degre de moindre cbaleur; dans la sixieme co- 
lonne, on marquera le degreJde cbaleur moyenne, tel qu'on I'aura 
obtenu par I'opcfration dejit indiqu^e et consignde au bas du tableau 
No. 2. 

" On suivra precisement la m6me mcthode pour les observations 
baromctriques tt hygrometriques ; de mC-me pour les observations dea 
vents, on indiquera la date du jour ou le vent a ete le plus fort dans 
cltaque mois, avec sa direction, et le degre de sa force, ainst que la 
direction et la force moyenne des vents dominans de chaque mois. 

' " * Ou, li DU le trouve bon, on peut mettre dans la coloaai! ialilul£c direclioH, la 
□Dmbre lie joiitb qiiu clmiuo Tviil K souffli ; et duu la calunni/orcr, la foKO muycQUa 
db te lunt : aiDsi G jour* Kord, 12 Jouib Eit, etc. ; el oa tios, t&\w(> par une bf,T>e, 
le Tent dominmit. Cel arruu^^mcnt changers rindiutimi en lete de la coluDQe, 
qui, dans ce cm, tu lieu d'&tra venit ioiainantf Kia yituml dti vrnft." 



jiiiie-M'-moire du I'ot/ai/eitf. 



I a fnippni 

uppri 



nla 



I peu d'ob! 



; la polonne i< 

. cgalemeiit i< 



'eudirimeti-e dans )e Ubleu 
dans la colonue im 
mm pu faire avec ret in- 



.tey 



re marques 
ttruRieut. 

' Electroscope eC eudiometre; les rusumcs dejii indiques dani Iti 
k remarques Aa tableau No. 2. 

" Etai dti del le plut habituci ,- dana cette colonne on plsc«n It 
lempa ie plus hubituel qu'on a eu pendant chaque mois, tel que beM 
temps, temps pluvieu:c, convert, orag^eux, etc. 

" Pluie. On y metira la lotalit<: de ia qaaatiti! de pluie qui en 
tembtJe, et de levaporation qui a eu lieu, comme nous Ta^-uus preoi- 
detnment indique. 

" Phinomenes parliculifrs. On spikifiera tous ceus qui ant m 
lieu pendant chaque mois, et dans la culonne de^ remarques toaiM 
qu'on trouvera digne d'etre conaignc aur lea ^rtnemeos miHeoriques 
qu'on auruic ob.^erves. 

" Pour obcenir enauite les ri-sultata extr^mea et moy«Qi d'une 
Unoi^e d 'observation, on optTera siir les douze moia de raiiDee, pi^ 
dacment de la m&me manii^re que nuua I'avons indiqtie pour les trent> 
jours d'un moia, afin d'avoir le resultat de ce moia ; c'est-Ji-Uirt, 
qu'apfKS avoir tire une ligne en baa du tableau No. 3, comme on le 
voit aur ce tableau m^rne, on met aous la seconde colonne, la dale da 
jour et le nont du moi^ oil la chaleur a clc la plus forte-, sous la troi- 
. lieme le degrti de cette chaleur. On fait la niSme chose {ourlu 
deuK colonnes ^mirantes de la moindre chaleur, et aous la ^ixiomt 
colonne on met le ternie moyeo obtenu eii divisont par douze la sumine 
ies degrtis indiquts dans cutte colonne. On prucede de la nfanc 
raani^re pour lea obsecvationa du baronii:tre, de rhygromHre eldl 
I'ant'momelre. A-t-on fait des observations sur la qualite de I'air M 
■on ctat clectrique, on y metCra ieur rcsultat pour I'aun^ Pour 
V^tat du ciel on mettra son etat le plus habitui-l; et quant b laplaie, 
911 metira lu somme tutale de pluie et d'^vaporation. en additionoanl 
les culounes. A I'article dea phenomenea ou mettra seuiement l«s pliu 
importaua, et dans les remarques ce qu'on trouvera digne d'^ttre nolr. 

" Ce rc.'iuroe sera intitule n'SU,Uat de i'amik; tel qu'on le Toil daa) 
1a tableau No. 3, 

" Desii'ftt-on avoir les rcsultata extremes et inoyens de cbaqai 
mois de Taun^e moyenne, il faut comparer, mois par mois, tout«s fct 
tablea de chaque annt'e, semblaMes ii la prece'detilc, et en dt'duirv des 
It^itltats moyens, en diviaant La aomme dea observations par le itom- 
^re d'annceH d 'observation. 

"Si Ton vouiait avoir les rfisultats moyens pour chnque Jonr.it 
faudrait rapprother les observations faitea i-hnque jour du mois pen- 
dant cinq, six, dix ans, plus ou moins, par exemple, du pi-emior Jan- 
vier de rhaqiie annee. Additionuez alors toutea lea observatiuDS 
£aiies le premier Janvier de chnqne annte, et divisez park nombre 
d'aiinc'ea, le quotient dunnera la chaleur moyenne, I'eli'vation moy- 
enne du baronittre. pour le premier Janvier de I' 
On feru k- lainx travail puur cliuque ioiu' tie I'auiice. 



Aide-Memoire du Voyageur. 239 

" Voici comment il faut dresser la table pour lea rtsultats tie chaque 
mois, annee commiine. (Voyei tableau No. 4,) 

" On mettra en t£te du tableau le uom du mois: suit pour Janvier, 
coinme dans I'exemple, Daus la premiere colonne on metira les 
annees, dans la seroii'le les degr^s de plus grande cbaleur, dans la 
troisieme les degres du plus grand fioid, dans la quatrieme la cbaleur 
moyenne, dans !a cinqui^mc la plus grande elevation du barometre, 
dans la siKieme la moindce (■l^vatiuu, dans la sepiieme I'cl^vation 
moyenne, dans la huitieme la plus grande humitlit^, dons la neuvieme 
la tnoindre bumidite, dans la dixieme I'bumidite moyenne, dans la 
onzieme la quantity de pluie, dans la douzieme ia quantitti d'^vapo- 
ratioR, dans les huit (.-olonnes euivantes le nombre de fois ou de joura, 
ai i'on veut, que le vent a souffli? des rumba indiquiSs en baut de ces 
colonnes ; dans la vingt-et-uni^me le nombre de jours qu'il a fait 
I>eau, dans la viugt-deuxieme le nombre de jours mauyaia, dans lea 
vtngt-truisic^me, vingt-quatrieme et vingt-einquieme le nombre de 
jours qu'il a plu, neige ou tonne; dans la vingt-sixicme I'euum^- 
ration des phi-nomenes cdlestea, et dans la vingC-septieme et dernit:re 
les reraarques generales. 

" Cetie table etaiil remplie, plus on moins, on tirera une ligne 
liorizonLale en bas. On additionnera les colonnes et on prendra les 
termes raoyens en divisaiit ees sommes par le nombre d'annees ; ce 
qui donnera Iuh rcsultats moyens et extremes pour le muis de Janvier, 
annee commune. On fera la mCme chose pour chacun des autres 
moia." 



IV. — Narraiioe of an Expedition ihrough the Upper Mississippi 
fe> Itasca Lake, the actual Source of this River ; embracing an 
Explnratory Trip through (he St, Croix arid Bumtirond (or 
Broicle) Rivers; in 1832. Under the direction of Henry R. 
Sclioolcrafl. ]Sew "^'ork. 1834. 8vo. 

" Abbrican fref^raphy," says Mr, Schoolcraft, '' may be said to have 
had three important problems to solve, in modern times: the first 
snd second of tbese related to the source of the Missouri, and to the 
course and termination of the Columbia; both were substantially 
resolved by the expedition of Lewis and Clark, under the adminis- 
tration of Mr. Jeil'erson. It is to he borne in mind, however, that 
hut one of the three forks, up to which the Missouri was traced, has 
been explored ; that its two north-westeru branches have not been 
ascended ; and that, consequently, we do not actually know which of 
its primary tributaries is the longest, or brings down the greatest 
volume of water. 

" The true source of the Mississippi, which forms the third topic 
of inquiry, was brought into discussion at the same period ; and im- 
nediaCely after the acquisition of Louisiana, the American govern' 



240 Erpedition throuf/k the Upper Mississippi. ' 

ment sent an officer, with a nuitable body of men, to determine it, 

Lieutenant Pike, who was selected for this service, did not. how- 

- evec. set out t;ar1y enou^'h in the season (IS05) to accomplish the 

L 6bject. After the selection and purchase of the site, on which the 

f fort near the Falls of St. Anthony is now situated, he encountered 

delays in ascending; the rapids characteristic of that part of the Mis* 

Bissippi. Winter overtook him before reaching the junction of the 

De Corbeau. He prepared for its severities by erecting a block-house, 

for the security of his provisions and men. He then proceeded with 

a small detachment on snow-shoes to Sandy Lake and Leech Lake, 

two points of central influence, which were then occupied by the 

North- West Fur Company. 

" No further effort was made to explore the sources of the Mis- 
sissippi for several years. In 1820, Governor Cass, then administering 
the government of Michigan Territory, and exercising jurisdiction 
over Indian affairs, obtained the sanction of the general government 
to visit the region. He left Detroit with a party of ihirty-eight men, 
including the gentlemen composing his suite, during the latter part of 
May. He was supplied for a journey of four months. After tra- 
versing the coasts of Lake Huron, and visiting Michilimackinac, he 
proceeded north-westward, by ascending the primitive summit at the 
Fulls of St. Marv, went through the e:<tended and picturesque basin 
of Lake Superior, and first struck the waters of the Upper Mississippi 
at Sandy I^ke. To this point he was accompanied by the military 
escort, and by the train of larger canoes employed to transport stores 
and baggage. But the fatigues which the men had undergone in 
crossing portages, added to the low state of the water, induced him to 
form a permanent encampment at this place ; and he proceeded with 
a select party, in canoes, to explore the Mississippi. 

'■ It was the middle of July when the expedition reached Sandy 
Lake, and the difficulty of subsisting so lai^e a party in so remote a 
position, with the constant claims of sutfering and hungry tribes, who 
presented themselves at every point, began to be severely felt. The 
exploring party, which was now organized, went out under a sense 
of these circumstances, and with a feeling of the responsibility pressing 
upon the claims of the expedition in other quarters, which limited the 
time applicable to the ascent. They entered the Mississippi on the 
ITch of the month, and found A strong current, with alluvial banks, 
and a vegetation indicative of a fertile soil. For the distance of about 
one hundred and fifty miles, above this point, the party found no 
diminution in the average strength of the current, which was fre- 
quently accelerated by rapids. The latter then assumed a more for- 
midable aspect for ten or a dozen miles, at the end of which they 
were terminated by the falls of 1'eckfi.uama. At this cataract, the 
river, which below has its course through alluvial banks, densely 
wooded, is compressed between rocks of granulated quartz, over 
wliieh it rushes with a velocitv which would seem to threaten de- 
struction to any species of craft that should attempt the descent. It 




Expedition through the Upper Miatistippi. 241 

became necessary, at this puint, to transport the canoes and baggage 
from two to three hundred yards over land. 

" On reaching the Peck^oma summit, the channel of the Mis- 
sissippi was found to flow more directly from the west, with a com- 
paratively sluggish current. But the most distinctive trait of this 
part of the river was found to consist of a series of extensive savan- 
nahs, through which the river displays itself in the most elaborata 
ivindings. The junction of the Leech Lake branch takes place at 
this plateau, at the computed distance of fifty-five miles above 
the falls. After passing this point, the course of the river is again, 
generally, from the north-west, about forty-five miles to Lake 
Winnipec, a handsome body of clear water, estimated to be ten miles 
broad. The course of the ascent is then west, for about fifty miles, 
at which distance the river is found expanded into a more consider- 
able lake, presenting an area of limpid water of, perhaps, 120 square 
miles. This sheet, which has sublequently been found to be the 
largest expansion of the Mississippi, is since denominated Cass Laka 
Jt was the highest point reached. The party entered it on the 21st 
of July, The question of pursuing the stream farther, was then sub- 
mitted by Governor Cass to the gentlemen composing his party. 
Anxious as all were to see the actual source of so celebrated a stream, 
their wishes were controlled by circumstances. Inconveniences had 
been felt from leaving the supplies at so considerable a distance below; 
and as the waters were found to be low, and the preparations inade- 
<iuate for a journey of indefinite extent, a decisive opinion was 
expressed in favour of a return from this point. This decision was 
immediately carried into effect. 

" From the best information that could be obtained, the Missis- 
sippi was represented to have its origin in a lake called Zia £tcA«, 
supposed to be sixty miles distant in a north-west direction. Upoo 
this estimate, the length of the river was comjjuted to be 3038 miles* 
and by a series of approximate estimates, its altitude placed at 1830 
feet above the Atlantic. Numerous rapids and lakes were, however, 
stated to exist in this remote part of the stream, and a degree of 
vagueness and uncertainty exhibited in relation to it, which evinced, 
that the traders, who were relied on for information, either had seldom 
frequented it, or preserved an indefinite recollection of its geogra- 
phical features." 

Such was the state of public information on this point in 
1820. In 18S0, Mr. Schoolcraft first received instructions to 
renew the attempt, to which a desire to restore peace between the 
Chippewas and Sioux fuither stimulated tlie American govern- 
ment. In 1831, he reached the upper course of the Mississippi 
from Lake Superior for the purpose ; but the waters were so low, 
that it was found impossible to ascend the river. In 1833, the 
expedition was more fortunate ; and succeeded in fully exploring 
the sources of this great stream. It may be sufiicient to take up 

VOL. IV. R 



242 E.vpcdition ihrovcjh the Uj^per Mississippi. 

its proceedings from Cass Lake, the farthest point previously 
attained : — 

" Every arrangement being completed on the evening of the 
10th, we embarked at three o'clock the next morning. Our 
course lay westward, through a strait, formed by the approach of a 
part of the island to a part of the main shore. We then passed two 
islands, called Garden and Elm islands. The morning was too hazy 
to give us any extensive prospect of the lake, or its shores. We 
Lad been a little more than an hour in motion, when we found our- 
selves nearing the western head of the lake, and the men soon shoved 
our canoes upon a sandy beach, with the exclamation of un portage. 
We found this portage to extend about fifty yards, over a plain of sand, 
bearing pine, and terminating on the banks of a small lake. Through 
this lake the Mississippi has its course, and the two lakes are con- 
nected by a circuitous channel, which might, perhaps, have occupied 
half, or three-quarters of an hour to ascend. The lake, for which 
we heard no name, is several miles in extent. We passed it trans- 
versely, and entered the channel of the river on its western border. 
It presents a still current, with an edging of savannah, which, at no 
great distance above, is again expanded around the margin of another 
lake, called Tascodiac. Hills of sand, covered with yellow pines, 
bere present themselves, and the river exhibits for several miles above, 
either a sand bank, or a savannah border. Time is the only measure 
of distance which we had the means of referring to. About eight 
o'clock, rapid water was encountered, and at this point, which may 
be fifteen miles above Cass Lake, the meadow lands cease. Boulders, 
of a primitive character, are found on the rapids. The rapids are such, 
in their force and inequality of depth, as to require the men frequently 
to wade, and pull up the canoes. There are, say, ten of these prin- 
cipal rapids, in the ensuing twenty or twenty-five miles, at which 
distance we reach the most northern point of the Mississippi, which 
is marked by the fine expanse of the Pamitchi Gumaug, or Lac Tra- 
yers. This lake may be fifty feet above the level of Cass Lake. It 
is about twelve miles long, from north to south, and six or seven 
broad, with elevated shores, presenting to the eye a beautiful vista of 
hard wood groves. 

«• We were an hour in crossing the lake south-westwardly, and 
were impressed with the extent and beauty of the prospect. On 
gaining the opposite shore, we found the Mississippi flowing with a 
brisk and deep current into it, and exhibiting a width of perhaps one 
hundred and fifty feet. In landing a few moments at this point, we 
found the beach strewed with small shells, both uniones and helices. 
A log-house, used as a winter trading camp, stood a few hundred 
yards northwardly ; and this may be referred to as the most advanced 
trading location on the main waters of this river. 

*< Lac Travers is separated by a short channel, from a bay or lake 
of moderate dimensions, which is from its proximity considered a part 
of the main lake, although the current of the separating channel in* 
dicates the latter to be rather a river than a strait. It will be con- 



Expedition through the Upper MUtiiaippi, 243 

Tcnient to refer to it, as it is from thia point that the Mississippi, 
wiiich has now been purnued lo its utmost northing, is ascended 
directly south. About four miles above this bay, the Misaisaippi haa 
its ultimate forks, being furmed of an east and west branch, of which 
the west branch is decidedly the largest and considerably the longest. 
Reasons indicated by our guide, induced him to conduct us up tha 
east branch, which we soon found expanded into a small lake, denoted 
Marquette, and not far above into another denoted La Salle. \V» 
were twenty- four minutes in passing through the last, and on leaving 
it found the stream atrikingly diminished in volume, with a limited 
depth, and a vegetation of a more decidedly alpine character. About 
four miles higher the stream expands into a lake, six or seveu 
miles in length, and about half that distance in width. This lake, 
which is called Kubbakunna, The Rest in the Path, presented a 
pleasing aspect after the sombre vegetation we had passed below. 
Rushes, however, were abundant toward its head, and we found the 
ground too low and wet for encamping. After ascending the river 
for a distance, we put ashore for the night at a point of woods ex- 
tending into the marsh- land constituting the river margin. The soil 
at this place appeared to be of the most frigid character. A carpet of 
moss covered it, which the foot sank deep into at every step. The 
growth was exclusively small grey pine, with numerous dead branches 
below, and strikingly festooned with flowing moss. Nearer the 
margin of the river, alder, tamarack, and willow, occupied the soil. 
As night approached it commenced raining, which served to add to 
the natural gloom of the spot. 

"We resumed the ascent at five o'clock in the morning, (12th.) 
The course of this branch of the river above the Kubbakunna Lake 
resembles a thread wound across a savannah valley. A species 
of coarse marsh-land grass covera the valley. Clumps of mllow 
fringe this stream. Rushes and Indian reed are gathered in spots 
most favourable to their growth. The eye searches in vain for 
much novelty in the vegetation. Wherever the stream touches the 
■olid land, grey pine and tamarack are conspicuous, and clumps of alder 
here take the place of willow. Moss attaches itself to almost every 
thing; and there is a degree of dampness and obscurity in the forest, 
which is almost peculiar to the region. Water fowl seem alone to 
exult in their seclusion, and evince the infrequency of intrusion by 
dying a short distance, and frequently alighting within gun-shot. 

" At half-past five we came to an elevated sand-hill on the right 
shore covered with yellow pine, and presenting a naked face towards 
the river. As one of the canoes required mending, 1 directed the 
men to land at this spot for that purpose. Oza Windib, who was A 
little in the rear, at the moment said on coming up, that we were 
within a few hundred yards of the junction of the Naiwa, the principal 
tributary of this fork ; that a series of rapids commenced at that 
point, which would render it necessary to make a portage the whole 
extent of them, and that it was better to commence the portage at 
this place, as the river so ran,tliat we might go directly back through 



C44 Expodilion fJimiKjJi ihc Tapper Mis>/fssij)j)i, 

the forest and strike its channel. He said that the Naiwa, which 
came in on the left, was a stream of considerable length, and ori- 
ginated in a lake which was infested by copper-head snakes, to which 
its name has reference. I observed that the soil at this place was of 
a diluvian character, and embraced pebbles, and small boulders of 
syenite, trap-rock, and quartz, and other debris of primitive and 
secondary rocks. One of the party picked up a well-characterized 
piece of zoned agate. 

" While the mending of the canoes was in progress, the baggage 
was put in portable order, and as soon as all was ready, the men moved 
on with the canoes and effects, which were so arranged that all could 
be carried at one load, and it did not require them to go back. This 
was a point originally kept in view, in the curtailment of the baggage 
at the island, and it was an object of the highest importance to the 
speed and success of the trip. Each canoe and its apparatus, with 
some of the lighter pieces was carried by one man. The guide led off 
the men, with no slight burden on his own shoulders, first scrambling 
up the sandy acclivity, and then striking through a growth of scrub 
oak and pines. The showers of the morning had so thoroughly wet 
the grass and shrubbery, that a few moments walking through it was 
sufficient completely to saturate both pantaloons and stockings. I 
walked out a few hundred yards from the trail, towards the left, which 
brought me into the curve of the river in view of the rapids. There 
appeared to be a series of small rapids, with intervening shallows. 
The noise of falling water and the white wreaths of foam induced me 
to think there might be distinct falls, but I could discern nothing 
entitled to the name. The entire descent of the river at this series 
of rapids appeared to be, however, considerable, and might perhaps 
be estimated at forty-eight feet. I rejoined the party at the spot they 
bad selected for their first pause, somewhat to their relief, probably, 
as guns had been fired by them, under the belief of my having missed 
the way. We first came in sight of the river again, on the brow of 
an elevated sand-hill precipitous towards the water. The guide halted 
to inquire whether it would not be preferable to encamp at this spot, 
as we should suffer less from insects than if we encamped in the 
valley of the river at the termination of the portage. As the daylight 
was not gone, and some distance still remained, I deemed it better to 
go on, that we might have nothing to do in the morning but to put 
our canoes in the water. On reaching the bank of the stream, we 
found its current placid, and our guide informed us that we had now 
surmounted the last rapids. 

** A fog prevented our embarking until ^ve o'clock in the morning, 
(13th,) and it was then impossible to discern objects at a distance. 
We found the channel above the Naiwa diminished to a good-sized 
brook, more decidedly marshy in the character of its shores ; but not 
presenting in its plants or trees anything particularly to distinguish it 
from the contiguous lower parts of the stream. The water is still 
and pond-like. It presents some small areas of wild rice. Jt appears 
to be a favourite resort for the duck and teal, who frequently rose up 



Ezpediliim t/irovi/h the Upper Mi-mssippi. '245 

befure uB, and were aroused again aod a^ain by our progress. An 
Jiour and a Imlf diligently employed, brought us to the foot of Ussawft i 
Lake: we halted a moment to survey it. It exhibils a broad border 
of aquatic plants, with somewhat blackish waters. Perch abound ia 
it. It is the recipient of two brooks, and may be reg'arded as the 
aouroe of this fork of tlie Mississippi ; we were predsely twenty 
minutes in passing through it. We entered one of the brooks, the 
most southeily in position i it possessed no current, and was filled 
with broad-leaved plants, and a kind of yellow pond-lily. We a[v- ' 
pearcd to ha involved in a morass, where it seemed equally imprao 
ticable to make the land, or proceed far by water. In this we were 
not mistaken; Oza Windib soon pushed bis canoe into the weeds 
and exclaimed, Oma, miliunnat (here is the portage.) A man who is 
called on fur the first time to debark in such a place will look about 
him to discover some dry spot to put his feet upon ; no such spot 
however existed here ; we stepped into rather warm pond water, with 
a miry bottom. Afc*r wading a hundred yards or more, the soil !«- 
came firm, and we soon began to ascend a slight elevatioD where the 
growth partakes more of the character of a forest. Traces of a path 
ajipeared here, and we suddenly entered an opening affording an 
eligible spot for landing. Here our baggage was prepared for the 
portage. The carbonaceous remains of former fires, the bones of 
birds, and scattered camp poles, proved it to be a spot which had pre- 
viously been occupied by the Indiana. The prevailing growth at this 
place is spruce, white cedar, tamarack, and grey pine. We here 
breakfasted. 

" Having followed out this branch of the Mississippi to its source, 
it may be observed, that its existence as a separate river has hitherto 
been unknown in our gec^raphy. None of the maps indicate the 
ultimate separation of the Mississippi above Cass Lake into two forks. 
Little surprise should therefore be manifested that the latitude of the 
head of this stream is found to be incorrect. It was not however to 
be expected that the inaccuracy should be so great as to place the 
actual source an entire degree south of the supposed point. Such, 
however, is the conclusion established by present observations. 

" The portage from the east to the west branch of the river is 
estimated to bo six miles. Beginning in a marsh, it soon rises into a 
little elevationof white cedar wood, then plunges into the intricacies of 
a swamp matted with fallen trees obscured with moss. From this the 
path emerges upon dry ground; it soon ascends an elevation of 
oceanic sand, having boulders and bearing pines. There is then 
another descent, and another elevation; in short, the traveller now 
£nds himself crossing a series of diluvial sand ndges, which form the 
height of land between the Mississippi Valley and Red River. This 
ridge is locally denominated Hauteur lies Terres, where it is crossed 
in passing from Lac Plaie to Ottertail Lake, from which point it pro- 
ceeds northward, separating the tributaries of the River des Corheau 
from tliose of Red River. It Anally subtends both branches of the 
Mississippi, putting out a spur between the east and west fork which 



(240 Expedition througJi the Vpprr Mississippi. 

intersects the portage, crosses the west or Itascan fork ahoiit the 
point of the Kak^bikonce or Little Rock Falls, and joining the main 
ridge passes north-eastwardlj of Lac Travers and Turtle Lake, and is 
again encountered in the noted portage path from Turtle Lake to Red 
Lake; it is, in fine, the table-land between the waters of Hudson's 
Bay and the Mexican Gulf. It also gives rise to the remotest tri- 
liutaries of the river St Louis, which through Lake Superior and its 
connecting chain may be considered as furnishing the head WBters of 
the St. Lawrence. This table land is probably the highest in North- 
western America in this longitude. 

** In crossing this highland, our Indian guide, Oza Windib, led the 
way, carrying one of the canoes as his portion of the burden ; the 
others followed, some bearing canoes and others baggage ; the whole 
party were arranged in Indian file, and marched rapidly a distance ; 
then put down their burthens a few moments, and again pressed 
forward. Each of these stops is called a pose by the voyageurs, and 
is denominated Opup^idjiwunon, or a place of putting down the burthen, 
by the Indians. Thirteen of these rests are deemed the length of the 
portage ; the path is rather blind, and requires the precision of an 
Indian eye to detect it : even the guide was sometimes at a loss, and 
went forward to explore. We passed a small lake occupying a vale 
about midway of the portage in canoes ; the route beyond it was more 
obstructed with underbrush ; to avoid this, we waded through the 
margins of a couple of ponds, near which we observed old camp poles, 
indicating former journeys by the Indians. 

** To the geologist the scene is one of interest ; the boulders of 
granite and other primitive strata occurring on the surface, remind 
nim of the original position of these masses in the system of nature, 
and indicate revolutions affecting the earth's surface, which have 
widely changed both the position and form of these solid materials. 
When the soil itself is examined, it adds further evidences of such 
changes. We may refer its sand to consolidated strata of this mineral 
which have been broken down by oceanic action, and distributed in 
the remarkable ridges and elevations which now characterize the face 
of the country. In whatever light the subject is viewed, it seems 
difficult to resist the conclusion, that water has been the cause under 
Providence in effecting these changes ; and that the highest grounds 
in this region have been subjected to the peculiar influence which 
this element alone exerts in the work of attrition and deposition of 
strata, solid or diluvial. It might be interesting to inquire in what 
manner this agent of change was withdrawn, and whether a current 
was created toward any of the cardinal points. It would aid this 
inquiry to observe, in which direction the debris and soils were de- 
posited in the heaviest masses ? How far granite boulders had been 
carried from their beds ? And whether wood, bones, and other organic 
remains had been subjected to like removals ? We think these accu- 
mulations are abundantly witnessed in casting the eye down the Mis- 
sissippi valley, with a measured decrease in the size and weight of 
the pulverized masses, in pi-oceeding from the head to the mouth of 




Expedition tkrmigh the Vppvr Mimmppi. 247 

this riTer. It ia thus evident, that the beaTiest bouldeis are found 
ou its upper bnincheB, while they become rare io its central plains, 
and disappear altogether, long before its entrance into the deltas at 
its mouth. And this remark may be coupled with the accounts given 
fay travellers of the hleah, and denuded, and sterile character of the 
northern rock formations. 

" But we have no leisure to devote to this investigation, and must 
proceed with the narrative that is before us. Every step we made 
in treading these sandy elevations seemed to increase the ardour with 
frhich we were carried forward. The desire of reaching' the actual 
source of a stream so celebrated as the Mississippi — a stream which 
La Salle had reached the mouth of a century and a half (lacking a 
year) before, was periiaps predominant ; and we followed our guide 
down the sides of the last elevation, with the expectation of momen- 
tarily reaching the goal of our journey. What had been long sought, 
at last appeared suddenly. On turning out of a thicket into a small 
weedy opening, the cheering sight of a transparent body of water 
burst upon our view. It was Itasca Lake — :the source of the Mi>- 
sissif^i. 

" Itasca Lake, the Lac la Biche of the French, is, in every respect, 
a beautiful sheet of water, seven or eight miles in extent, lying 
among hills of diluvial formation, surmounted with pines, which 
fringe the distant horizon, and form an agreeable contrast with ths 
greener foliage of its immediate shores. Its greatest length is from 
south-east to north-west, with a southern prolongation, or bay, which 
receives a brook. The waters are transparent and bright, and reflect 
a foliage produced by the elm, tynn, maple, and cherry, together with 
other species more abundant in nortJiern latitudes. The lake itself 
is of irr^olar form, which will be best illustrated by the accompanj"- 
ing sketch. It has a single island, upon which we landed, after &a 
hour's paddling from the spot of our arrival and embarkation. Wo 
found here the forest trees above-named growing promiscuously with 
the betula and spruce. The bones of fish and of tortoise, found at the 
locality of former Indian camp-fires, indicate the existence of these 
species in the lake. We observed a deer standing in the margin of 
the lake : and here, as well as throughout the lakes of the region, 
found the duck, teal, and loon in possession of their favourite seclu- 
sions. Innumerable shells (a species of small helix) were driven up 
on the head of the island. Other parts of the lake yield small speeiea 
of the unio, which were found strewing the bed of the outlet ; and it 
may hen be remarked, that this shell exists, in the largest and 
heaviest species heretofore known, in the loiver parts of this stream^ 
the Mississippi having its origin here. 

" The outlet of Itasca Lake is perhajis ten or twelve feet broad, 
with an apparent depth of twelve to eighteen inches. The discharge 
of water appears to be copious, compared to its inlet ; springs may, 
however, produce accessions which are not viaiUe, and this is pro- 
bable both from the geologicol character of the country and the 
transparency and coolness of the ivater. 



Q,4S Expcdiliun fh rough the Upper Mississippi, 

*' The lici^rlit of this lake ahove llie sea is an ohject of geograpliical 
interest, which, in the absence of actual survey, it may subserve tlie 
purposes of useful inquiry to estimate. From notes, taken on the 
ascent, it cannot be short of 160 feet above Cass Lake. Adding 
the estimate of 1330 feet, submitted in 1S20, as the elevation of that 
lake, the Mississippi may be considered to originate at an altitude of 
1490, say 1500, feet above the Atlantic. Its length, assuming 
former data as the basis, and computing it, through the Itascan or 
west fork, may be placed at 3160 miles ; 182 of which comprises an 
estimate of its length above Cass Lake. Its general course, in ascend- 
ing^ above the latter point is north of west as far as Lac Travers ; 
then south to its primary forks, which is continued, following up the 
east fork to Kubbakuhna Lake, and for some distance- farther. It 
then varies a short distance north and north-west, then south-west 
and south, and finally south-west, to its main source in Ussawa Lake. 
The portage thence to Itasca Lake is west-south-west. Both these 
lakes appear to rise in springs on the height of land. They are separated 
by about six miles of country. Their latitude we had no means of 
accurately determining: from daily notes of the courses and distances, 
kept by Lieutenant J. Allen, as indicated by a compass and watch, 
their position is, however, shown to be south-west, and not, as hereto- 
fore supposed, north-west, of Cass Lake : they are, in fact, a little 
south of west from Leech Lake, which is placed on our best maps in 
47° 16'. The h^hest northing attained by the Mississippi is on the 
great diluvial plateau, containing the contiguous waters of Lakes La 
Salle, Marquette, and Travers, which cannot vary more than a few 
minutes from forty-eight degrees. These facts will explain the error 
of the elder geographical writers, who supposed that the parallel of 
forty-nine degrees would intersect the Mississippi. Its origin in the 
remote and unfrequented area of country between Leech Lake and 
Red River, probably an entire degree of latitude south of Turtle Lake, 
which still figures on some of our maps as its source^ throws both the 
forks of this stream out of the usual route of the fur trade, and fur- 
nishes perhaps the best reason why its actual sources have remained 
BO long enveloped in obscurity. 

** The Mississippi River traverses more degrees of latitude than 
any other river in America, and the remark might perhaps be ex- 
tended to the habitable globe. The extremes of its changes in climate 
and vegetable productions are consequently very great. It occupies 
above a thousand miles of the distance between the arctic circle 
and the equator. Long as it is, however, it has a tributary longer 
than itself (the Missouri). Like the Niger, its mouth was dis- 
covered by expeditions down its current ; but, unlike that stream, 
which has so long held the geographical world in suspense, its sources 
have been also sought from its central parts. Its entire course is at 
length known ; and we may now appeal with full certainty to the 
13alize and to Itasca Lake as its extreme points : at the latter, it 
is a placid basin of transparent spring water ; at the former, it is 
as turbid as earth in suspension can make it, and carries a forest of 



Eipcdilion (hrijiiijh Ihc Upper Missisulppi. 243 

floating trees on its bosom. Below the junction of its primary fork* 
it expands, at very unequal distances, into eight sheets of dear water, 
each of which has features worthy of admiration : four of these, Ijio 
TraverR, CasB Lake, Wiunepec, aod Lake Pepin, are lakes of hand- 
some magnitude and striking scenery. The uumher of its tributaries, 
of the first, and the second, and the third class, is so large, thai it 
would funii.xh a labour of some research to determine iL The Mis- 
souri, the Ohio, and the Arkansiis, are of the noblest class. Who- 
ever has stood at the junction of these streams, as the writer has 
done, must have been impressed with an idea of magnitude and pnwer 
which words are incapable of conveying. The broadest parts of iu 
channel lie in the central portions of its valley ; its depth is great in 
all its lower parts, and increases as it flows on to the Gulf, and ita 
general descent and velocity ara such as to appear very striking 
characteristics. Noble views arrest the eye of the observer in every 
part of its diversified course. Originating in a heavy and extensive 
bed of diluvial soil, Buperimpoaed upon primitive strata, it soon wears 
its channel down to the latter; and, after running over them for 
geveral hundred miles, plunges at length, at the Falls of St. Anthony, 
over the carboniferous limestone formation which is no prevalent and 
so valuable for its mineral deposites below that point. This is finally 
succeeded by diluvial and alluvial banks, tbe latter of which are 
■emi-ansually enriched by fresh deposites, and exhibit a deha aa broad 
and as exuberant as the Nile. Like the latter, it has itii cataracts in 
tlie Falls of St. Anthony and Pukaigama, and in numerous lesser 
leaps and cascades, where its current is tossed into foam, and 
threatens destruction to the navigation. Such are its physical traits, 
and these enough in their character, magnitude, and variety, to lead 
our contemplations irresistibly ' through nature up to nature's God.' 

"Having gratified our curiosity in ItascaLake, we prepared to 
leave the island, but did not feel inclined to quit the scene without 
leaving some memorial, however frail, of our visit. The men were 
directed to fell a few trees at the head of the island, thereby creating 
an area for the purpose of erecting a flag-staff. This was braced by 
forked stakes, and a small flag hoisted to its place. Taking speci- 
mt^ns of the forest growth of the island, of a size suitable for walking- 
canes, and adding ita few species to our collections of plants and 
conchology, we embarked on our descent. The flag which we had 
erected continued to be in sight for a time, and was finally shut out 
from our view by a curve of tbe lake. We found this curve drawn 
out in such a manner as to form, with the opposite «hore, the 
channel of the outlet. We soon fell our motion accelerated by 
a current, and began to glide with velocity down a clear stream, 
with a sandy and pebbly bottom, strewed with shells, and over- 
hung by foliage. Ten feet would, in most places, reach from 
bank to bank, and the depth would probably average over a foot; 
the water was not, however, equally distributed. A strong and 
winding channel made it a labour of active watchfulness for the 
cauoe men, to keep our frail vessels from being dashed agaiiiat 



I 



C.3() Erprdifion thrnufjh fho Upper Mississlj'jji. 

boulders, or torn in ]Heces by fallen timber or overhanrr'm^ trcc<5. 
Chopping with the axe was frequently necessary to clear the passage, 
and no small labour was imposed by getting through the drift wood, 
piled up at almost every sudden bend. We were almost imperceptibly 
drawn into a series of rapids and petty falls, where the stream was 
more compressed and the water deepened ; but the danger rendered 
tenfold greater by boulders of blackened rocks and furious jets of the. 
stream. We were rather hurled-«than padled through these rapid 
passes, which increased in frequency and in fury as we advanced. 
After being driven down about twelve miles of this species of navi- 
gation, during which the turns are very abrupt, the river displayed 
itself, so to say, in a savannah valley, where the channel is wider and 
deeper, but equally or more circuitous, and bordered with sedge and 
aquatic plants. This forms the first plateau ; it extends eight or nine 
miles. The river then narrows and enters another defile, beset with 
an almost continued series of rapids. 

** At a place called Kab&bikons, or the Little Rock Falls, we made 
a short portage ; two of the canoes, however, made the descent, but 
not without imminent peril, and a delay eventually greater than if 
they had been carried across the portage. We descended this second 
series of rapids, a distance of about nine miles, and encamped at a 
late hour on a high fine bank ; having come, altogether, about thirty- 
two miles below Itasca Lake. Wearied with the continued exertion, 
the frequent wettings, and the constant anxiety, sleep soon over- 
took the whole party. 

** We were in motion again a little before five o'clock in the morn- 
ing (14th). The rapids continued. The branches of large trees 
often hung so near to the water, that if we were not in peril of being 
entangled, like the Jeivish rebel king, we were in a more continual 
danger of having every moveable article swept from the canoes. An 
accident thus occurred to one of the canoes, about six o'clock in the 
morning, which might have had a fatal termination. 

** The character of the stream made this part of our route a most 
rapid one ; willing or unwilling, we were hurried on. Yet I am not 
aware that any important object was neglected. Where there is 
much sameness in natural features, frequent landings are unneces- 
sary; and whoever has devoted his time in going thus far up the 
Mississippi, will have made himself familiar with its plants, soil, and 
productions. The pine, in its varieties, is the prevailing tree ; and 
whenever we get out of the narrow alluvions of the valley, arena- 
ceous plains appear. Among the plants that border the river, the 
wild rose, which is so conspicuous on all the streams north-west of 
Lake Superior, is very often seen ; the salix, so common to the lower 
Mississippi, and so uniformly infested with musquitoes, presents itself 
on the first plateau, and is afterwards one of the constant shrubs on 
the savannahs. 

** The river continues to descend in steps. The second series of 
rapids was followed by a second level, or plateau, in which the 
channel assumes a width nearly or quite double to that which it pre- 



Expedition throufjh the Upper Misiissippi. 261 

seots on the rapids. On thla levd the Caiio River comes in, as a 
tributary, on the right shore. The volume of water is perceplihiy 
increased by i[. This pUteaii may extend uine railes. It is suc- 
ceeded by rapids of a milder character, below which the river again 
displays itself in savannahs, with a comparatively wide, winding 
channel. These are finally terminated by short and easy rapids 
which biing the river out of what we may designate as its alpine 
passes - 

" At four o'clock, we came to the junction of the Piniddiwin. a 
tributary from the left, having its origin in a lake, and entering the 
MisHissippi amidst an extensive marsh of rice, reeds, and rushes, 
which give it rather the appearance of a marsh than a lake. It is, 
however, called Lac la Fotle. This spot was estimated to be \0i 
miles below Itasca Lake. 

■' About eighteen miles below the junction of the Piniddiivin we 
debarked, for the purpose of cooking supper, and preparing our 
canoes for a night descent, as the channel of the rirer was now suffi- 
ciently broad, deep, and equable to justify it. Ad Ocant Ekinabie 
was killed at this place. Lieutenant Allen, wishing daylight to finish 
trscin^ (tie river to its juiiciiua with the east fork, encamped here. 
By the time we were ready to embark, clouds had overcast the moon, 
which afforded a clear light before ; but we trusted to our experienced 
guide, on a part of the river fatniliar to him, and we had no cause 
to repent of our confidence. Several shots were fired during the 
night at deer standing in the edge of the water. The men landed at 
one spot, and pursued an animal supposed to have been wounded. 
We found ourselves at the junction about half-past one o'clock in the 
rooming (ISlhJ. Having given notices of our ascent of the river 
thus far, it is unnecessary to add to them." 

To the above we may also add the following : — 

" Cass Lake has been estimated to be within a few miles of 3000 
from the Gulf of Mexico, and to lie at aii elevation of 1330 feet above 
that point of the Atlantic waters ; its distance north-west of Sandy 
Lake is about 270 miles, and of Fund du Lac 420 mileg. Estimates 
make it 182 miles below the true source of the Mississippi in Itasca 
Lake, and GO south of Red Lake. It receives Turtle River ou 'm 
northern shore. This river is ascended through eleven small lakes, 
a distance of about SB to 4o miles to it^ origin in Turtle Lake, once 
deemed to be the source of the Mississippi. There is a portage from 
the lake, for light packages of goods, across the summit- level of the 
Mississippi valley into Red Lake, and the fertile valley of Red River. 
The latter embraces the settlements pknted by the Earl of Selkirk ; 
the inhabitants of which maintained their existence for several years 
against the strenuous opposition of the North-West Company, and 
they appear now to be in a state of comparative prosperity, under 
the direction of a local governor, council, and clergy." 

Mr. Schoolcraft's volume also contains the " Journal of an Ex- 
ploratory Trip through the St. Croi?f and liois-lijulu Uistrjct," 






KxpidWum ihrouijh the Upper Mkslss'nqn. 



ir 



]\ing diiectly south of llic lieail of l.ake Superior ; rospccliii; 
the physical geography of wliich, and also of ihe present condition 
of its Indian inhabitants, he gives some interesting notices, llirec 
Appendices conclude the work, one containing the contributions 
to ^' Natural History" made by the expedition ; the next an essay 
on the " Chippewa Substantive ;'* and a tiiird, his " Official 
Correspondence." The accuracy of some of liis philological views 
regarding the Indian Languages, contained in the second of these, 
is disputed by a gentleman, Mr. Howse, of Cirencester, who is 
now preparing for publication, under the patronage, and at the 
joint expense, of the Royal Geographical and Church Missionary 
Societies, a Grammar and Vocabulary of the Cree Language. 
Some examples of the discrepancy between the two authorities 
we subjoin. 

*' Mr. Schoolcraft's remarks on the Indian language offer a few 
points on which a difference of opinion may be entertained ; among 
others are the following : — 

*^ 1st. Mr. Schoolcraft says, page 95, * Pronouns are inflected for 
tense, and in this shape supply Uie want of our auxiliary verbs.' 

** The joining together of words not necessarily connected is, for 
many reasons, not desirable. It has, indeed, been the usage, in dis- 
cussing these North American languages, to unite even the nominal 
iive^ the auxiliary particle^ and the accompanying verb together ; but 
it is an inconvenient practice, as may be seen by the vocal) ulary 
of Cotton, the usefulness of which has been greatly lessened by 
thus unnecessarily increasing the difficulty of detecting the verbal 
rooty and so far rendering it inaccessible to all but the practised 
Indian scholar. Mr. Jones, also, in his * Translation of the Gospel 
of St. John ' (published by the British and Foreign Bible Society, 
London, 1S31), has, but most probably without the most remote 
thought of imitation, generally followed the same method; and this 
I at present consider to be the chief, if not the only drawback in his 
respectable work. 

*' Mr. Schoolcraft, however, seems inclined to unite only two of 
these ; viz., the nominative and its accompanying auxiliary, consider- 
ing the latter as an inflection of the former. This, however, is a point 
1 cannot concede to him, for, with all due respect to his views, I am 
decidedly of opinion that the auxiliaries, ke, kah, ka, tali, &c. (Jones's 
orthography), far from being inflections, are independent, unin- 
Jlectible, interchaiigeable particles ; and that, in the following instances 
from the first chapter of Mr. Jones's Translation, above alluded to, 
the auxiliary particles (in italics) should stand detached from the word 
with which they there stand connected, in like manner with their 
English representatives have, shall or tcill, can, may, &c. ; which 
stand alsto apart from t/ieir nominatives and verbs. In this point the 
idiom of the two languages is the same, except, as before stated, 
that the Indian auxiliary is uninjlccted. 




Expedition through the Upper Mississippi. 255 

" St. Jolin i. 1, — ^^aliyah ^kii ahyali) oojTd-w^je'wegoon (oo g^ 
w^jtJwegoon) ; v. 2, ia/iwtjewegood {k&h wejewegood ; v, 3, oogS- 
Icegtzhetounun (po gt- kegi, &c.} foA^^odzhechegahddsenoon (tah gi 
dozhe, &c,j JtuAodzhechegahd^ig (kdh txSzhe, &c,) K'kek&injegamah- 
g^hsenoon (k« kekiiin, &c.) ; t. 31, ning^-kekdnemahae ( nin ge 
ktiki, &c.) c/iekekdnemegood (clie kckdnemegood) ; not omitting 
Mr. Schoolcraft's own ejcample (p. 178) ogl (o gi), 

" In the event of a further translation being made of the Scrip- 
tures, it is desirable that this be particularly attended to ; this appear- 
ing to be at present a very defective part in the writing of our trans- 
lations, as well as a material obstacle to an improved orthography, 

" 2d. Ranging under the same denomination words that appear to 
belong to different classes, seems to be objectionable. 

" Under this description comes perhaps the word ■ aindftd (home 
or place of dwelling),' exemplified, p. 184, as one of an ' extensive 
class of nouru.' It appears to myself to be evidently a verb in the 
third person singular of the subordinate or subjunctive mood. Indeed, 
all the inflections which the example presents (viz., aindfL — yan,— 
ywn, — d,»— yanj, — yung, — yaig, — wad), and also the others of which 
this word is susceptibU (in which number the nrgative form may be in- 
cluded), are all exclusively verbal. The modifications belonging to 
the noun are utterly inadmissible, which Is not the case with those 
substantives which are of acknowledged verbal origin. 

" That the word is used in the sense assigned to it is readily 
admitted ; i. e., as definitive of the name. Mr. Jones so uses it : — 

{ayindahwad V6 cihiliio^. 
tohtrt Ikeg tetrt abiding, 
they weut. 

_ , . „., , ■• ■ f emah ainrfA/, 

Sa«]*ii, „ su. S7...ualo fti( Dim Aome ... * yft^aii vilure ke mat Mdag. 

Bat its legitimate meaning is conveyed by a terb indicating the 
abiding {temporarily even, as well as lastingly), and is in this sense 
perhaps well exemplified in 

S. John 1. 38, Wbe. .,«;« <4.«,'jtt>7-. SfSi .„. 

„ i. a., ^A.™/« J^u . . {Zt Z£.\..« m;.,. 

Its it»animaU form is daligoo in the indie. ; dahgoog, subjunct. : as, 
Where it Hi Abn eend' dindaligoogt (n'ith ihe Jiaiteiud vowel). 
The etymolt^y of this word will be slated at large elsewhere in my 
Grammar, 

" To the same (viz., 2d) observation may be referred another ' in- 
teresting class of substantives (see p. S!01), derived from the third 
person singular of the present indicative of the verb by changing the 
vuwe! sound of the first syllable, and adding the letter d to that of 
the last.' This is, in fact, the third person of the Dihjunclii-e. with, as 
in certain verital expressions is requisite, the first vowel (as Eliot 
terms \\.'i fiaitened. 




S54 Expeditwn through the Vpper MtMrUiippi. 

" What bu been tud abova of the modi/tcationM of the class of 
words there ftlluded to u hnng exciumely verbal, ii equally applicable 
to the claw before ui ; and it may be added, that the specific teroig 
adduced aa examples (even if lubitaDtiTelr used) can have reference 
to an object in the third person only, that being the perton, as its de- 
rivatioD imports, which alone it represents. It will also be noted, as 
R consequence, that this term varies, in vtrbal forms, according to the 
granmtalical person to which it refers. 

" Thus aaiuniing:, for an example of this class of ' substantives,' 
this term h^ttmndhmahgaid, we Grid it in the third person, in 
SL Jahnxiii. 13>..T« call ( UlunooUinuligBrf kiya fogmpth ked' tibintliihihini. 
iDe iloMitr aol Lonl \ ' it who MuliM,' uiil ■ SiM^' j* nune me. 

In the following five placet we find the same term, ' Master or Teacher,' 
in the teamd person : — 
i.38 

.... Mathr . . . .htkaaoMnathgaytm—i. e, < lUa who tucbut,' 



We find it also in the indicaUve, and without the altered vowel ; viz. — 

ill. ,.^A« ,^ . «^ ,.»ta,j { ?.:;t:jS "w"? "" 

In reducing an oral language, especially an American language, to a 
grammar plan, I find it to be of the utmost importance to have strict 
regard to a correct clasuficatjon of terms, as essential to a true intel- 
ligible system. 

" 3d. Mr. Schoolcraft says (p. 105), ' A Chippeway does not say 
/ Unx, without indicating, bv an inflection of the verb, the object be- 
loved ; and thus the expression is constantly, / fow Awn, or An-, &c. 
Neither does the infinitive appear to be generally the ultimate form 
of the verb.* This embraces two important points, which, with other 
observations of Mr. Schoolcraft's, deserving notice, will 1 trust be 
found thoroughly investigated, and satisfactorily settled, elsewhere in 
my grammar. Sic." — Letter from Mr.Hoiose. 

" P. S.— At p. 178, I. 22-9, Mr. Schoolcraft has also printed a pa- 
ragraph which I should tliink misprinted, if he had not repeated the 
errors in it in two examples. He must have been at cross purposes 
with his interpreter when he took the phrases in question down." 



( 2i5 ) 

\'.— Journal of Travels in ike BeyUk of Tunis. B> Sir Gren- 

ville Temple, Karl. MS. pp.244. 
Sir Grenville Temple, who has just returned from a tour through 
Egypt and some of the states of liarbary, has kindly commuiiicaied 
to us a MS. journal of his excursions throiij^h the Regency of 
Tuiib. After carefully examining the ruins of Carthage and other 
monuments of antiquity in the viciniiy of Tunis, he visited the 
chief towns oil the coast of the Regency; and then, proceeding 
from Ciabes across the SIbkah el Ludlah, or Salt Lake of the 
Marks, to Nefsa, nhldi stands on the edge of the great desert, re- 
lumed to Tunis by a route across the mountains. The numberless 
stalely remains of Roman architecture which still crown every 
hill and moulder in every valley of the Regency of Tunis, speak 
more for the energy and civilizing Influence of the government of 
llie Cffisars than the greatness of Rome itself. The following de- 
scription of the remains of the amphitheatre at ElJemm, the 
ancient Tysdrus, will fully justify this remark — 

" Within two miles of E! Jemm, the ancient Tysdrus, the land is 
cultivated and enclosed by hedges of the prickly pear, through an 
avenue of which we soon after beheld tlie great ampbitheatre towering 
loftily over the miserable mud hovels of the village, and appearing 
itiU more colossal from the lowness of the plain, and smallness of all 
surrouniiing objects. Having, on leaving Sfakhus, been told thai the 
Zabataba's palace at El Jemm would be prepared fur us, I had sent 
back the tent from Sidi Salah as an unnecessary incumbrance ; this 
we all now extremely regretted, for the Zabataba's house, which it 
must be confessed is a name promising well, we found to be nothing 
more than one small room, not over-clean — and (he rougher sex 
were, therefore, obliged to sleep with the horses in the open yard. 
Tliis, and a few other inconveniences, were matters of no import 
to me, though they were so to those who had never travelled ex- 
cept in France and Italy ; and they combined to form in them 
a very unfavourable idea of the comforts attendant on a visit into 
the interior regions of Africa, if we may be allowed thus to 
de»gnate so short an excursion from its sea-coast. The sheikh was 
also, it must be confessed, excessively remiss in his duty, and threw 
OS entirely on our own resources and capabilities of oLtaining what 
we stood in need of. I found, however, that those who slept in 
the open air obtained by far a greater decree of repose than those 
who occupied the interior, who, tormented by fleas, were unable 
to obtain even the shortest pciiod of sleep. Immediately after we 
had dismounted, we proceeded to view the amphitheatre, and to 
ascertain by inspection what other remains existed of the former 
Tyaiirus ; the principal of which, and indeed the only one of any 
consequence, we found to consist in the great extant edifice built 
in former ages as (he spot in which the inhabitants were wont to 
seek for amusement. Shaw states that it dates its origin from the 
fe^n of tlie Gordions, who were here first recognized as chiefs—- 




I 



(^- ('. 



T A 



f -.' 



r.j — 



i\ 



,1 * • 






it leas: hv a irrcat n::.-or:tv — of ;he Va>t Roman 
empire, tired of the cruelty and despotism of Maximinus ; and who 
for this sopport may have erected, as a memorial of their gradtude, 
this splendid monnment, dedicated entirely to the amusements of 
their party. All this is, however, conjecture, for not the restige of 
an inscription, at least that I <K>uld discover, remains to prove or con- 
test the supposition. I entertain, nevertheless, little doubt, that if 
excavations were judiciously made round the spot, and the interior 
of the surrounding hovels were minutely examined, the stone bear- 
ing the dedication to the emperor who erected it would be discovered. 
Deprived, however, of the information which such an inscription would 
convey to us, we are compelled to satisfy ourselves with beholding 
an edifice which, though yielding in magnitude and splendour to the 
Coliseum, is still one of the most perfect, vast, and beautiful remains 
of former times which exists — to our knowledge, or, as I should per- 
haps more correctly state, to my own individual knowledge— com- 
bining in Itself more of those united properties than any other building 
which I can at this moment bring to my recollection. The amphi- 
theatre of Nismes I have never seen, that of Pola, in Istria, is perfect 
in its exterior, though completely the reverse interiorly ; whilst, on 
the contrary, the one at Verona is diametrically the opposite, pos- 
sessing the range of seats as entire as at the time when admiring 
citizens witnessed the sports performed in the arena for their gratifi- 
cation, but, with the exception of four arches, completely deprived 
of its exterior fa<^ade, the principal and most beautiful feature of these 
stupendous edifices. 

** The length of the amphitheatre of Tysdrus, which extends nearly 
east and west, is 429 by S6S feet; and that of the arena, 23S by 1S2 
feet. These two latter measurements are taken from the inner 
cxinting wall, the real boundary of the arena being uncertain. The 
height of the level of the first gallery is 33 feet, and to the sum- 
mit of the edifice 96 feet.* It possesses four ranges of pillars and 

^ The fullowiti}^ list may perhaps prove interesting, as showing the rank in mag- 
nitude which this amphitheatre holds among edifices of the same nature. 





Extreme 


Extreme 


Length 


Breadth 


Height. 




Length. 


Breadth. 


of Arena. 


of Arena. 


Coliseum • • • • 


615^ 


510 


281 


176 


164 


Verona . • • • • 


506 


405 


247 


145 




Kl Jcmm • • . • 


429 


368 


238 


182 


96 


Niftmes 


430 


338 






76 


Pola 


416 


337 








Side (Karamania) 


409 




125 




79 


Utica 


363 


240 








Psstum . • • • 


211 


151 








Capua • • • . • 












Pompeii • • • • 












Svruon • « 


-mo 


95IA 


180 
150 


100 
110 




71 












f.i ' 






\ 


■ * 





The Amphithealre of El Jetnm. Q57 

arches, 60 in number in each, or rather in the three lower onea, for the 
fourth is H pilastrade, elevated on a stylobata, with a square wiodow 
in every third inter-pilaster. The rajrilalH are of tliat species of the 
composite order which we aee on Diocletian's Pillar at Alexandria, with 
a slight variation helwi-en the second range and those composing the 
first and third. At each extremity was a grand entrance, but the west 
one, together with an arch oa each side of it, was destroyed, together 
with the lame portion of the whole superstructure, about one hundred 
years ago, by Muhammed Bey, who thereby wished to prevent the 
possibility of the amphitheatre being converted into a strong and vast 
fortress by some tribes of Arabs, then in open revolt against his 
authority. A very small portion also of the exterior wall of the fourth 
or upper story remains to this day. The interior of this magnificent 
building is in A far more dilapidated state than the exterior, which, 
with the above-mentioned exceptions, may be stated to be in complete 
preservation ; but great part of the vaulted and inclined plane, 
which supported the seats, the galleries, and the voniitoria, are still 
left. Tht galleries and stairs leading to the different stages were sup- 
ported hy a^cht^3 and vaults, composed, not like the rent of the build- 
inp, of large pierret de iaille, hut of a mass of small !iiones and mortar ; 
and they have, consequently, in many places fallen in. Under the 
surface of the arena, as in tliose of the Coliseum and Amphitheatre 
of Capua, are seen passages, and little chambers for containing the 
wild heaats, as well as square aperturea opening upon the arena, 
up which were raised the lions and tigers, enclosed in boxes made 
on the principle of the pigeon-traps used at shooting-matches, whose 
sides, on reaching the summit, being unsupported by the walls of the 
tunnel, fell to the ground, and, working on the hinges which Joined 
them to the bottom of the box, left the ferocious monsters at once 
exposed to the view of the spectators. 

" The key-stones of the outward arches of the lower order were in- 
tended each to have borne some ligure sculptured in relief, for on one 
we see the bust of a female, and on the other the head of a lion ; this 
design was, however, never completed, for on all the others we only 
see the projecting part of the stone which u-as to have assumed the 
iihape of different figures or devices. I could discover no inscriptioa 
OD any part of the building, except some in Cuphic and Arabic charac- 
ters; the one which doubtless existed to commemorate its founder 
was probably placed over the gale, since destroyed, which faced the 
town of Tysdnm to the west. This town, the foundation of whose 
walla can distinctly be traced, was built round the spot now occupied 
hy tlie Marabet of Sidi Ahmed Bejenani, near which are the suh-struc- 
tores of a very fine temple ; and in different directions are seen 
the trifling remains of other edifices. Numerous columns of cipol- 
lino, granite, white and Numidian marble, and brescia corallata, are 
often discovered by the Arabs, ivho, cutting them into three or four 
blocks, send them, for the purpose of being converted into mill- 
stones, to different parts of the country. I heard that an Arab had 
not long ago discovered a vase, containing gold and silver c 

VOL. IV. 



I 





£58 Lang'i Origin and MigrationM 

engraved stones ; but from the fear of their being all seized from him, 
he reburied it, though he has probably taken opportunities gradually, 
and in small portions, to dispose of its contents. Small fragments of 
porphyry, giallo antico,.serpentino, &c, are found plentifully scattered 
on the surface of the ground. There is also Been a well-executed 
statue, in white marble, of a young Roman emperor, bat the head and 
feet are wanting; and under one of the arches of the amphitheatre is 
found a draperied statue, also deprived of the head ; for the Arabs, 
immediately on discovering any of these beautiful specimens of ancient 
sculpture, actuated by a religious and superstitious feeling, break off 
and destroy this part of the human figure." 

The remarks made by Sir G. Temple, during his journey from 
Gabes to Tozer and Nefsa, also furnish much curious information 
respecting a country hitherto but little known ; but as the entiie 
Journal will shortly appear, we shall make no further extracts. 
We have been much gratified by the inspection of about eighty 
fine drawings of scenery and antiquities, with which il is illus- 
trated. 



Vi. — Vieio of the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian 
Nation ; demonslraiing their ancient Discovery and Pro^es- 
jivc Settlement of the Continent of Ameiica. By John Duii- 
moie Lang, D.l). London, 18S4, ISmo. pp. 25G, 

The object of this work is fully explained in its tiile; and the 
argument, apart from the observations and examples by which its 
aeveral steps are illustrated, begins with proving the Polynesians 
to be themselves Indo-Chinese, thus : — 

" J. The distinction of caste— the most ancient and remarkable 
feature of Asiatic society — prevails to a great extent in the South 
Sea islands. In Tahiti, this diatinL'tiou was formerly carried to so 
ridiculous an extent in the case of the royal familv — all the members 
of which were regarded as sacred in the highest Tahitian sense of the 
word — that whatever any of the princes of the blood happened to 
touch became sacred aliio. If the king entered a house, the owner 
had to abandon it furtliwith. If he walked on a footpath, it was 
death for a plebeian to walk on it afterwards. In the Friendly 
Islands, the several castes are still better deHned; and the Brahmin, 
or priestly caste, ranks highest, insomuch that the Grand Lama of 
these islands, the Tool Tonga, as he is called, takes precedence even 
of the king. In New Zualand, indeed, the distinction of caste dues 
not prevail. Tkere every man is either a Bangatira, i. e, u genlie- 
jnan, who knows no superior, and who hows to no authority; or a 
miserable slave, who holds, or who loses, hia life at the mere caprice 
of Ilia master. The slave, however, is not inferior in birth to tbe 
toaster. He has only become inferior through the fortune of war. 



of the Polynesian Nation. 259 

" The castea in India are, — 

" 1. The Brahmin casto. whose af!ice is to olTer sacrifices, to teach 
the Veda, to offer gifts, and to receive presents. 

" S, The Kshutriya caste, whose o^ce is to protect the country 
and the Brahmins. 

" 3. The Vishya caste, whose office is to keep cattle, to carry oa 
trade, to cultivate the land. 

" 4. The Shoodra caste, whose office is to serve the Brahmins. 
And persons of the higher castes must not communicate tvith the 
lower in marriage, in eating, or in family friendship, on pain of de- 
gradation and the loss of all earthly connexions. 

" In the Friendly Islands, in which the Polynesian system seems 
to have retained much more of its ancient and distinctive features 
than in most of the other groups, a similar, if not exactly the same, 
division of society obtains. In these islands the highest caste is in 
like manner ; — 

'* I. The priestly caste, the heads of which ire supposed to be 
descended from the gods : ihey receive presents from the lower 
castes, and enjoy peculiar privileges ; and the other islanders testify 
their respect towards them by addressing them in a sort of Sanscrit 
or sacred language, which is nut used on inferior occasions. 

'■ 3. The Egi, or nobles, whose office it is to preside in war, and to 
be the rulers of the country, the king himself being of this caste. 

'■ 3, The ftlatabooles, or gentlemen, whose oiEce it is to act as com- 
panions and counsellors to the nobles, to be masters of ceremonies 
and orators at public assemblies. The cadets or younger brothers 
and sons of this caste practise mechanical arts iinder the name of 
Mooas. 

" 4, The Tooas, or lowest caste, consisting of common labourers, 
cooks, servants. And, in like manner as in India, the repugnance 
towards any intermingling of the castes is so strong, that if an indi- 
vidual of one of the higher castes has children by a wife or concubine 
of one of the lower, the children must be put to death to prevent the 
degradation of the family. 

" II, The institution of Taboo, which obtains universally in the 
South Sea Islands, is also of Asiatic origin. Its existence and ope- 
ration may be traceii from the Straits of Malacca across the whole 
continent of Asia, through Syria, to the islands of Greece. Under 
the Levitical law, the shew-bread was taboo ; as were the olive-trees 
dedicated to Minerva throughout the Athenian territory. An Athe- 
nian citizen was tried for his life before the court of the Areopagus, 
for removing the useless stump of one of them from his field ; as 
vmuld he an Otaheitan or New Zealander on a like occasion. 

"III. The rite of circumcision — of decidedly Asiatic origin — is 
practised in several of the groups of Polynesia, as in the Fiji, 
Friendly, and Society Islands ; not. however, as a religious observ- 
ance, but as an ancient custom, of the origin of which no account can 
be given. 

"IV. The idols of the South Sea Islanders resemble those of 




fi60 Lang's OrU/in and Migratiims 

Asia, especially those of the Burman empire. In both cases the 
idol is generally represented in a recumbent posture ; its legs are 
disproportionately small, and its hands are clasped before it. 

" V. In their physical conformation, and even general character, 
the natives of the South Sea Islands resemble the Malaya. 

" VI. Nomerous Asiatic customs are stii! discernible in the various 
islands of the South Seas, lu Otaheite, as in Bengal, women are not 
allowed to eat with their husbands, or to partake of certain articles of 
food which are indiscriminately eaten by their lords and masters. 
The general posture in sitting is that of the Asiatics — on the ground. 
cross-legged ; and in the Friendly Islands, as in the kingdom of Siam 
and in other eastern countries, it is deemed most respectful to sit in 
the presence of the sovereign. The New Zealanders and the Friendly 
Islanders salute each other by touching noses — a ceremony which is 
not unknown in eastern Asia; and in the island of Tonpa there is 
B game called liico, which consists in throwing up and in keeping in 
the air a number of balls, as is still practi.sed by the Indian and Chi- 
nese jugu'lers. 

"Nay, similar modes of thinking, and corresponding peculiarities 
of action, are found to prevail both in Asia and in the South Sea 
islands. The New Zealanders, for example, uniformly ascribe in- 
ternal maladies to the anger of some Atua or divinity, who is sup* 
posed to be gnawing the patient's viscera. In such casen, therefore, 
instead of administering anything in the shape of medicine, the priest 
or soothsayer is consulted ; wito, after certain divinations, probably 
pronounces the patient fiiven over to the anijer of the goil, and then 
taboos or excommunicates him ; after which he is removed to a soli' 
tary house in the neighbourhood, and left to die, like the ajied or sick 
Hindoo on the banks of the Ganges— no person being permitted to 
hold further communication with him, or to supply him with provi- 
sions. It is singular, indeed, that a similar idea, and a somewhat 
similar practice, in regard to the treatment of diseases, should have 
obtained even among the ancient Greeks. We learn from Homer. 
that when the Grecian army under the walls of Troy was afflicted 
with an epidemical disease, Machaon and Podalirius, the surgeons- 
general of the forces, were not asked their opinion, in the council of 
the chiefs, either as to its cause or to the treatment to be adopted 
for its cure. Chalca^. the soothsayer, was the only person consulted 
respecting it; and, like a genuine New Zealand Ariki, he ascribed 
the disease to the vengeance of the far-darting Apollo. 

" In the Fiji Islands, the principal wife must be strangled at her 
husband's death, and buried along with him—a practice evidently 
borrowed from the suttees of Hindostan. The same practice ob- 
tained alfo in the Friendly Islands, in regard to the principal wife of 
the Tooi Tonga, or chief priest of these islands. 

" VII. The general tradition of the South Sea Islanders— at least 
of those inhabiting the groups in the Southern Pacific — is, that they 
came from the north-west; and Bolotoo, the Paradise of the Friendly 
Islands, is supposed to lie in that direction. 




of the Polynesian Nation. 

" VIII. The cloth made in the South Sea Islands, and commonly 
called Otaheitan doth, b the same, as observed by Mr. Marsdcn, 
with the original clothing of the Sumatrans'; and the useuf the betel- 
nut, as practised in the East Indies, is found to exist in seveia! of 
the Polynesiiin isles. 

" IX. A remarkable resemblance occurs between the Polynesian 
and Malay languai^ea. 'One original language,' says Sir Stamford 
Raffles, * seems, in a very remote period, to have pervaded the whole 
(Indian) Archipelago, and to have spread (perhaps with the popula- 
tion) towards Madagascar on the one side, and the islands in the South 
Sea on the other ; hut in the proportion that we find any of these 
tribes more highly advanced in the arts of civilized life than otbers, 
in nearly the some proportion do we find the language enriched l\v a 
corresponding accession of Sanscrit terms, directing us at once to tUe 
source whence civilisation flowed towards these regions.' 

" ' At first,' says the unfortunate La Perouse, ' we perceived no 
resemblance between the language of the people of the Navigators' 
Islands and that of the people of the Society and Friendly Islands, the 
vocabularies of which we had with us; hut a closer examination 
taught us that they spoke a dialect of the same tongue. A fact 
which may tend to prove this, and which confirms the opinion of the 
English respecting the origin vf the.te people, is, that a yonng Ma- 
nillese servant, who was born in the province of Tagayan, on the 
north of Manilla, underslood and interpreled to us most of their loordt. 
How it is known that the Tagayan, Tulgal, and all the dialects of the 
Philippine Islands in general are derk-ed from Ike Alitlay ; and this 
language, more widely spread than those of the Greeks and Romans 
were, in common to the numerous tribeit that iaiiiibit the islands of 
the South Sea. Tome it appear.s demon-^trated, that these different 
natioai are derived frum Malay colonies who conquered these islands 
at very remote periods ; and perhaps even the Uhinese and Egyp- 
tians, whose antiquity is so much vaunted, are niodera compared to 
these.' 

[■• The following are some of the points of this resemblance : — 
1. All the Indo-Chinese nations, including the Mal.iyan and Poly- 
nesian tribes, have a language of ceremony, in which their chiefs are 
addressed, differing, in many important particulars, from the ordinary 
tongne. S. They are all monosyllabic in their structure*. 3. Id all, 
the words are susceptible of no change denoting diversity of gender, 
number, and case, or what is understood in European languages by 
declension and conjugation. Every possible variety of thougbtmust 
be expressed by a sej^arate word ; in no instance is there a change of 
termination. 4. Relationship is expressed in them, and compound 
words formed, by the mere juxtaposition of primitive words. 5. Par- 
ticles are used by them in a similar way ; and these particles are in 
many instances not merely similar, but identical. 6. Similar sounds 
abound in them; the consonantal are fewer and the vowel sounds 



Di. Lang Uificn ftom Mr, Uuidea, 



Lang's Origin and Migraiia 



268 

more nnmeroui than in the European and western Asiatic lanf^nages : 
(hence the facility with which they run into dialects.) 7. Various 
I wordH havd the same signification in them."] 

Dr. Lang, now considering the Mongolian, Malay, or Indo- 
I Chinese origin of the Soutlt Sea Islanders to be proved, pro- 
I ceedn next to argue on the possibility, and even prima facie 
probability, of their having extended themselves ettat to the conti- 
nent of America, even if there were no very considerable proof 
that they did, arising from similarity of habits or manners. The 
usual objection arises from the distance, by sea too, and against 
the general course of the Iradc-winds. But the Malayans were 
always maritime iu their habits; their descendants (the South 
Sea Islanders) are known to resemble them in this. Thus, it 
seem!i demonstrated, they actually have reached even the most 
remote Polynesian islands; and the prevalence of cannibalism in 
ihese may be considered an evidence of the distress to which 
individuals were frequently reduced during their progress. Is there 
any abstract difficulty, then, in supposing that they went farther I 
or, rather, is not the mind, on these considerations, prepared to 
admit the following coincidences as proofs that they dkl ? 

" I. The Mexican and Peruvian cations were divided into king, 
nobles, and commons. The king was absolute, but coiitd not go to 
irar or engage in any other undertaking of importance without the 
assent of a council of chiefs. The chiefs were lords paramount in 
their own territories. The commons were mere slaves, whose per- 
sons and possessions were entirely the property of their masters. A 
precisely similar distribution of the component parts of society, and a 
precisely similar state of dependence of the king on the will of the 
chiefs, are observable in the Friendly and Society Islands. 

■' II. The Incas, or sovereigns, of Peru conjoined the regal and 
sacerdotal offices, agreeably to the ancient and patriarchal usage, ttex 
Aniiu — res idem, idemqne mcerdos. They were regarded, moreover, 
as divine personalis — sprung from the gods. Such, however, was 
also tiie status of the Tool Tonga, or royal priest, of the Friendly 
Islands ; and the idea that the royal chiefs were Atuas, or divinities, 
was universally prevalent in the islands, and was sufficiently evinced 
in the reeeifed opinion, or rather doctrine, that the king consecrated 
whatever he touched. 

"III. There was a language of ceremony or deference used in 
ancient Mexico when inferiors addressed their superiors, and espe- 
cially when a plebeian addressed a chief, or when the latter addressed 
I his prince. This language did not consist in the use of a few 
1 phrases of deference and respect, such as those in use in Euro- 
pean languages in addressing royalty or nobilitv; it constituted, 
00 to speak, a separate language, and pervaded the whole economy 
of speech. ' The Mexicans,' says Dr. Robertson, ' had not only 
reverential nouiu, but reverentkl rerbs ;' and the use of any other 




of the Polynesian Nation. 

than this reverential language, in ronversing with a king or roval 
chier, would have been held tantamount to high treason. I'hB 
prevalence of thia most remarkable peculiarity in the South Sea 
]glaud«, among the Malays of the Indian Archipelago, and the Indc 
Chinese natiouB of Eastern Asia, has been already noticed; and 
bow deeply rooted in the mental constitution of these nations, ho* 
closely interwoven with all their habits of thought, was the prin* 
ciple in which this very singular practice originuted, may be esti- 
mated from a practice of a somewhat similar kind that obtained 
within these few years in the ?outh Sea Islands. It was a point 
of established etiquette in the island of Otaheite, that if any word 
of common use in the language happened to form part of the king's 
name, it was no longer allowable to use that word thereafter in 
common conversation ; and the object it had designated from time 
immemorial had thenceforth to be designated by a totally different 
word. Thus, the word tai, signifying water, being honoured some 
time ago in being associated with the name of Tuhitian royalty, 
was thenceforth proscribed in common conversation, and its place 
supplied by the word puppi. The word po, signifying night, was 
equally unfortunate as a word of general use In the language, in con- 
sequence of being appropriaied as part and parcel of the name 
Pomarre — -a name which, although rather faraoua for the last twenty 
years in the Missionary annals of the South Seas, signifies merely 
night-cough, and was given to Pomarre in consequence of his being 
troubled on one occasion with an affection of that kind. 

" IV, The right of property was recognised and established among 
the Indo-American nations, but the lower orders generally cuhivated 
a considerable extent of ground in common, the produce of which 
was laid up by their superiors in storehouses called tamboi, and dis- 
tributed to each as he had need. The kumaras, or sweet potatoes of 
New Zealand, are always cultivated pro bono publico by persona set 
apart for the purpose, the produce being aftenvards distributed. 
ITie storehouses in New Zealand are lahoo : I suspect the Spaniards 
have reported the word inaccurately, for the Mexican lambo is pro- 
bably the same word as the Polynesian taboo, 

" V. A variety of handicrafts were practised in Mexico; and the 
Spaniards were often astonished not only at the perseverance of the 
Indians, but at the neatness of their ivork compared with the rude- 
nMS of their implements. Similar remarks have been made a thou- 
sand times in regard to the South Sea Islanders. 

'* VI. The Mexicans are remarkably fond of ornaments j and they 
form some of those that are most highly prized in a precisely similar 
way. 

" VII. The Peruvians cultivated the ground with a mattock of hard 
wood. So also do the New Zealanders. The Mexicans. Humboldt 
informs us, manufactured a sort of paper exactly similar in texture 
to the paper-cloth of Otaheite. 

" VIII. The Indo-American nations had no temples properly so 
called, i. e, buildings for religious purposes having a roof; but tbe^ 



Laiig'^ Oriijin and Migrations 



264 

erected solid mounds of eurth, which were ascended by a flight of 
stone steps, and surmoiinted with a. sort of altar. Similar hig/i placrt 
are erected in the South Sea Islands, and are called SloraU or 
Malaii. 

" IX. The divinities that were worshipped by the Mexicans were 
Bupposed to require human victims to be offered in sacrifice on their 
altars ; and such victims were accordingly offered, to the number of 
several thousands annually. The same horrible superstition prevailed 
in Otaheite, where the dead body of the human victim, who had per- 
haps been designated by the priest, and knocked on the head without 
any previous warning by one of his emissaries, was suspended in a 
basket of wicker-work to the branch of a tree near the Morai of the 
god, and left to putrefy in the open air. 

" X. The houses of the Mexicans had no windows, and the door 
was always so low that tliey had to stoop down on crossing the 
threshold. The New Zealander constructs his hut in a precisely 
aimilar way, 

" XI. Remains of ancient buildings in a singularly massive style of 
architecture are found in various parts of the continent of America — 
to the northward as well as to the southward of the equator. These 
remains consist, — Rrst, of temples ; second, of pyramids ; third, of 
tumuli ; and fourth, of fortifications ; and it is a circumstance worthy 
of particular observation, that precisely similar remains, of a remote 
and comparatively civilized antiquity, are found in the South Sea 
Islands, 

" 1. The Spanish writers on South America describe the remains of 
&n ancient Peruvian temple, consisting of an inclosed space open at 
the top, of which the walls are about twelve feet in height and con- 
sist of stones of an immense size, some of them being thirty feet 
long, eighteen broad, and six thick. These stones are not cemented 
\nth mortar ; neither have they been squared Co join closely tu each 
other, Uke hewn stones in a European building, although the stones 
of ancient Peruvian buildings are sometimes found hewn into regular 
forms ; but cavities have been wrought with the utmost exactness, 
and with incredible labour, in one stone to receive the natural or 
accidental protuberances of another. 

" 2. Baron Humboldt has described various ancient Peruvian 
pyramids, which, for the massiveuess of their structure and the bold- 
ness of their design, that accomplished traveller does not hesitate to 
compare with the pyramids of Egypt." " In speaking of struc- 
tures of a precisely similar kind erected by tlie ^outh Sea Islanders, 
Mr. Eliia observes, ' The form of the interior or area of their 
temples was frequently that of a square or parallelogram, the sides 
of which extended forty or fifty feet. Two sides of this space were 
inclosed by a high stone wall ; the front was protected by a low 
fence ; and opposite, a solid pyramidal structure was raised, in 
front of which the images were kept and the altars fixed. These 
piles were often imiMlUv. That which formed one side of the 
' i in Atehnru, according to Mr. Wilson, 




nf Ihe Polynesian Nation. 265 

bj' whom it was visited when ia a state of prexervation, was two 
hundred and seventy feet long;, ninety-four wide at the base, and 
fifty feet high, heing at the summit one hundred and eighty long, and 
sist wide. A flight of steps led to its summit ; the bottom step was six 
feet high. The outer stones of the pyramid, composed of coral and 
basalt, were laid with great care, and hewn or squared with im- 
mense labour, espedally the tiavd, or comer atones.' 

" 3. Tumuli, constructed, in some instances, of immense stones, and 
in others, as on the banks of the Ohio, of mounds of eartli, are also 
found among the remains of ancient civilisation, both in the South Sea 
Islands and in America. The island of Tonga Taboo, which contains 
a population of ten thousand souls, is of coral formation, and is 
almost level with the ocean. There is a tomb, however, in one part 
of it of great antiquity, called by the natives the tomb of Toobo Tool, 
and constructed of immense stones, such as the present natives of 
Tonga, in the e.iisting state of the mechanical arts in the Friendly 
Islands, would be utterly unable to move. These stones, moreover, 
must have been brought on rafts from some other island, as there is 
no other stone in the island of Tonga of the size of a pigeon's egg. 
Remains of ancient buildings, in a similar style of architecture, were 
found by Lord Anson in the island of Tinian, to the eastward of the 
Indian Archipelago. 

"Remains of a similar character are found also in Pasquas, or 
Easter Island, situated in lat. 27° south, and 109° west long.— the 
nearest of all the South Sea Islands to the continent of .\merica. 
'The most remarkable objects in Easier Island,' says Mr. Ellis, 
' are its monuments of stune-work and sculpture, which, though rude 
and imperfect, are superior to any found among the more numerous 
and civilized tribes inhabiting the South Sea Islands. These monu- 
ments consist in a number of terraces or platforms built with stones, 
cut and fixed with great exactness and skill, forming, though desti- 
tute of cement, a strong durable pile. On these terraces are fixed 
colossal figures or busts. They appear to be monunienlH erected in 
memory of ancient kings or chiefs, as each bust or column had a dis^ 
tinct name. One of these, of which Fortiter look the dimensions, con- 
sisted of a single stone twenty feet high and five wide, and repre- 
sented a human figure to the waist ; on the crown of the head a sloiie 
of cylindrical shape was placed erect : this stone was of a ditterent 
colour from the rest of the figure, which appeared to be formed of a 
kind of cellular lava. In one place, seven of these statues or busts 
stood together : one, which they saw lying on the ground, was twenty- 
tevea feet long, and nine in diameter.' 

" i. Remains of ancient and regular fortifications have also been 
discovered in both continents of America ) and the circumstance has 
repeatedly awakened much curiosity respecting the origin, the history, 
and the fate of the nation that has left behind it these memorials of its 
ancient civilization. But regular fortifications of a similar kind are 

"] met with in all parts of the South Sea Islands, in some islands 
are constructed of walls of loose stones piled on each other on 



I 



£66 Lang's Griffin OTid Mu/rations 

the tops of hilb) as in New Zealand ; in others, they are formed of 
strong palisades, like the fiurman Btockades, as in the level island of 
Tonga ; and in others they consist of some artificial addition to a 
place of great natural strength, as in the distnct of Atehuru in Ota- 
heite. 

" XII. The picture-writing of the ancient Mexicans has also a deci- 
dedly Polynesian, Malayan, or Chinese aspect ; and examples very 
similar to it occur among the South Sea Islands. 'In the course of 
our tour around Hawaii,' says the Rev. Mr. Ellis, in an Appendix to 
hia valuable work entitled Polynesian Researches, 'we met with a few 
specimens of what may perhaps be termed the first efforts of an un- 
civilized people towards the construction of a language of symbols. 
Along the southern coast, both on the east and west sides, we fre- 
quently saw a number of straight lines, semicircles, or concenlric 
rings, with some rude imitations of the human figure, cut or carved in 
the compact rocks of lava. They did not appear to have been cut 
with an iron instrument, but with a stone hatchet, or a stone less 
frangible than the rock on which they were pourtrayed. On inquiry, 
we found that they had been made by former travellers, from a motive 
similar to that which induces a person to carve his initials on a stone 
or tree, or a traveller to record his name in an album, — to inform bis 
successors that he has been there. When there were a number of 
concentiic circles with a dot or mark in the centre, the dot signified a 
man, and the number of rings denoted the number of the party which 
had cir cum- ambulated the island. When there was a ring, and a 
number of marks, it denoted the same; the number of marks showing 
of how many the party consisted ; and the ring, that they had travelled 
completely round the island ; but when there was only a semicircle, it 
denoted that they had returned after reaching the place where it was 
made. In some of the islands we have seen the outline of a fish 
pourtrayed in the same manner, to denote that one of that species or 
size had been taken near the spot: sometimes the dimensions of an 
exceedingly lai^e fruit, Sk., are marked in the same way,' 

" XIII, Notwithstanding the comparatively high degree of civiliza- 
tion, which the ancient Mexicans had attained, previous to the disco- 
very of the American continent by Europeans, their wars were uni- 
formly conducted with the most savage ferocity, and their captives 
were generally put to death and devoured. Indeed, a degree of fero- 
city altogether unexampled in the annals of European warfare, either 
in ancient or in modem times, seems to have distinguished the Indo- 
American nation in almost all its settlements, and in every period of 
its history; and the horrible practice of cannibalism appears to have 
prevailed to an enormous extent among its varioua tribes. Philoso- 
phers of high charaeler have recently expressed their utter astonish- 
ment at the prevalence of so revolting a practice in that parucular 
division of the human fiui>!|y; but, allowing the present hypothesis to 
be well-founded, the ilnt ittBuntants of the American continent mutt, 
fi'om the very nature ^^K"* ^'^ve been ferocious cannibals whea 
they landed OD its a^ ^HUtdbalism muit have been the general 




i'j tite Polyn, 



1 Nation. 




practice of tbeir forefathers of the Polynesian nation, in the course ot 
those miserable Toyagts tliut led to the successive discovery and set- 
tlement of the myriads of islands that stud the bosom of the Pacific, 
and are separated from each other, in many instances, by extensiva 
tracts of ocean ; and the horrible practice thus introduced by necea^ 
sity, and divested of its horrors by general usa^e, may aftenvardi 
have been indulged in from custom, if not choice. 

"XIV. The great councils of the Indo-American nations, in which 
affairs of public interest were publicly discussed, were conducted io 
the same manner as those of the Polynesian nation. Youth was not 
Suffered to mingle in the high debate. Regular harangues were deli' 
vered ; most of which were highly animated, and some highly elo- 
quent. And when any speaker had possession of the assembly, he 
was listened to with profound attention. 

" XV. Even in their prejudices and slight conventional points of 
manners, a resemblance may be traced between the Indo-American 
and Polynesian tribes. They both impute disease to the agency of evil 
spirits. Their modes of interment are similar, both suspending the 
body at some distance from the ground, where it is left to putrefy ; and 
afterwards collecting the tones, and placing them in a common ceme- 
tery. Both consider revenge a sacred duty ; both steal on their in- 
tended victim; and each after his manner regards the head as hi« 
trophy, the Indian scalping it, and making a drinking cup of the skull, 
the Polynesian baking it in an oven, and preserving it for generations. 
Both separate from their women when nursing, and forbid them, under 
pain of death, to touch, at that time, wilh their hands even the food 
they themselves eat. The South Sea islanders prepare an inioxicating 
beverage from the root of a sort of wild pepper which they call cai^ ; 
the In do -Brazilians and aborigines of Guiana prepare another from 
the American plant which they call cainata; and both prepare their 
beverage in nearly the same disgusting manner. Both catch fish by 
poisoning their waters with narcotic plants. Both, in reckoning their 
descents, attach peculiar importance to the mother's family. Both 
set a high store by the virtues of hospitality. The Indo-Americans, 
on the authority of Captain Basil Hall, resemble the Malays in feature 
and colour. And even their languages are not without features of 
similarity." 

Dr. Lang next traces these at considerable length, and with 
some desultoriness. We can neitlier quote this part of his work, 
however, nor satisfactorily abridge it. VVe ibiiik that he has 
established his main point; and, moreover, that he has brought 
within a moderate compass a great many curious facts and coin- 
cidences. We wish that he had, at the same time, expressed him- 
•df on some occasions with more deference for previous writers. 




( ?C8 ) 

VII. — Journal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia, in fur- 
fherance of ike ObjrcU of the Church Missionary SoHely. By 
ihe Rev. Samuel Gobat. London; 1834. ISriio. pp. ^71- 
This work is another contribution by the Missionary Societies to 
our knowledge of the social condition of distant countries; and 
although it contains no numerical statements, and little besides to 
the purpose of the mere geographer, jet our intercourse with 
j^byssiuia is too limited to allow us to pass it without some 
remark. It is the moral aspect of (he country which has chieHy 
attracted Mr. Gobat's notice ; and though still a painful subject 
of contemplation, it is somewhat less so in his hands than in those 
of his predecessors. The general outline of restlessness and sen- 
suality remains untouched ; but with it he seems to have found 
mixed up much patience under rebuke and eNposlulalion, — much 
individual gentleness of character, — and, above all, perhaps, much 
curiosity regarding the opiuions of others, and respect, in parti- 
cular, for those of the missionaries. This last, it is true, seems to 
have been evidenced in Mr. Gobat's case, chiefly by engaging 
him in theological discussions, and courting his decision on nice 
points of faith and opinion ; but its eO'ecis would not be confined 
to these, if scope were atforded to its more extended influence. 

It is a curious c)uestion in anthropology, whence arise the 
comparative gentleness and tolerance usually, though uot uni- 
versally, found among Pagans and Christians, who occupy the 
extremes in social existence ; and the fierce intolerance of the 
followers of Mahomet, who may be considered as standing be- 
tween both. The answer is not immediately obvious; nor could 
it be considered adequate unless it met, and in some degree re- 
conciled, even the apjiurent exceptions to the observation. But it 
would be an important contribution to anthropography, and by 
80 much to geography, if it accomplished this (ask. 

The curse of Abyssinia seems to be ils weak and unsettled 
government; and the following passage so strikingly illustrates 
this, that it may be considered an essential preliniuiary to Mr. 
Gobat's further statenienis regarding the character and manners of 
ils iuhubiiants. 

" At the time of Mr. Bruce, the kings were possessed of 
jiower, and, at the time of Mr. Salt, they yet had some appearance 
of it : but since the deatli of the Has Gongsa, about ten years since, 
they have liad nolhin? but the title of king. Thev would hare lost 
even this, were it not that the governors stand in need of it,'( 
support that of Ras ; for a dejasmat cannot take the title of Ras, lai 
fully, unless he has placed a new king on the throne. 

•' At the lime of Mr. Salt, the reigning kinf[ was Gooaloo, whi 
reigned seventeen years ; and after him, Joas, for four years. Thea 
the deJBsmat of Semei)) Heila Mariam, placed Beda Muriam upon the 



tec 
ce, 

1 



LInu! 
: 



Three Yean' Residence in Abyssinia, 1269 

throne ; but he could not sustain him. He reigned only three or 
four days; being displaced by Eemam ; and succeeded by Guigar, 
who had the title of king eight years. After the death of Mariam, 
Guig-ar was dethroned; and succeeded by another Joan, who, one 
year after, was obliged to cede the throne to Guebra Cliristos ; and 
he, it is said, died in consequence of poison being administered to 
htm hy order of the old king, Guebra. I do not know whether there 
be at present a king or not. The imprisonment of the male members 
of the royal family, of which Mr. Bruce speaks in detail, is no longer 
considered as necessary. Alt the members of that family are dis- 
persed in the various provinces, and live partly on what the grandees 
are pleased to give them, and partly by their own industry. They 
are, however, generally beloved and esteemed by the people, who, 
being incapable of forming to themselves any higher idea, have no 
Other hope for the future than to see this royal family restored, and 
to enjoy the fruits of such a restoration. 

" The most important men. who have governed the interior since 
the time of Mr. Salt, are, the Has Googsa, whose death is stiil re- 
gretted, on account of his justice and peaceable disposition i and his 
three sons— Eemam, beloved, like his father, of the whole nation, and 
who governed three years; Mii.riam, hated by all, except his sol- 
diers, who governed three years; and Dori, who governed only 
three months. The present governor is the grandson of Googsn, by 
B daughter ; who has assumed the title of Has Ali. and with whom tha 
people are much satisfied. The Dejosmat Maroo, son-in-law to 
Googsa, during some years goverued, with mingled justice and 
cruelty, the provinces of Dembea. Kovara, and Agow ; but his only 
son has not been able to succeed him. The Bus of tlie family of 
Googsa has given the government of Dembea and Kovara to his 
nephew, the Uejasmat Comfoo, whom I saw at Gondar. Iti Samen, 
the Ras Gabriel governed at the time of Mr. Salt. HJa son and suc- 
cessor. Hula Mariam, is still regretted throughout Abyssinia, and 
especially by the people whom he governed. It is seven years since 
he died ; and his son Oubea succeeded hira without difficulty, and 
has kept Waicait, which his father had subdued. For the last forty 
years there has been, comparatively, but little war on the other side 
of the Tacazie ; and the country has been miserable only during the 
three years of Mariam's government. Tigr^, on the contrary, has 
been in a slate of trouble and anarchy ever since the death of the 
Ras WaldaSelasse, in lSi5 or 1816, excepting during the seven or 
eight years of the goveniment of Sebagadis. 

" Shoa is entirely separated from the rest of Abyssinia, in all its 
agitations. The actual king. Sehla Selasse, the seventh of the same 
family, aged thirty-three years, has already reigned eighteen years, 
to the satisfaction of his people, who are very proud of him. During 
the last few years he has much extended the frontier of his kingdom 
to the south and the west. The provinces of the Gallas which he 
subdued have generally embraced the Christianity of Abyssinia." 

Mr. Gobal did not penetrate to Uiis last favoured portion of 
the country - but ci^perienccd the full inconvenience attending the 



I 




270 Three Yeari' Residence in Ahfuitaa, 

dissensions in the remainder. His residence was chiefly in 
Adowah (the capital of Tigre) and Gondar, to which he pene- 
trated \ij a new road, making thus a small addition to our previous 
itineraries of the country. The chiefs of both cities were his 
friends ; but just before his departure one of them defeated die 
other, and beheaded him ; and almost the concluding portion of 
the narrative records the moderation of the victor, in granting 
about half the father's dominioDs to his family. 

With these brief notices of modern Abyssinian history, we pro- 
ceed ROW to extract the most important statements which we 
elsewhere find in Mr. Gobat's volume, regarding the political 
institutions, — religious divisions, — and moral state of the country, 

I. " The independent governors are absolute in every respect ; it 
is, therefore, difficult to say anything of their politics. They are at 
liberty to give the government of a district to, or to take it from, 
their inferiors, according to their pleasure : they generally find, how- 
ever, that it is their interest to support the hereditary system, in the 
government of various districts. The Abyssinian governors have 
never, up to this time, tbougjit of intruducing the least amelioration 
into their country; ivith the exception of Sebagadis, wlio did not 
know how to begin it. Their chief object is to aggrandize themseives, 
without thinking what may become of their children after them. When 
they see themselves near their end, they endeavour to transmit their 
authority to one of their children, the son of their favourite wife; 
hut he, being in general younger, and having less experience than his 
brothers, scarcely ever succeeds. 

" Jurisprudence is very simple in Abyssinia. There are no advo- 
cates (lawyers). If any one has a complaint against another, he 
will rise before day-break, in order to go and cry before the house of 
the governor of his district, till he hears him. Then the accused per- 
son '\i summoned, who has a right to defend himself. The accuser 
and the accused put questions to each other alternately. The judge 
hears their reasons ; summons the witnesses, if there are any ; and, 
after the report of two or more, or, for want of witnesses, after 
taking an oath from the accused, he decides. In order ta prevent 
uoise, the judge orders both parties to speak separately, and appoints 
a pecuniary fine to be paid by him who interrupts the speech of bis 
adversary ; and thu.t he keeps a kind of order. If one of them should 
utter serious things or fal.selioods, the other asks, by signs, per- 
mission to speak; and the judge, giving it, imposes sUence upon the 
first. The sub-governors being easily corrupted by bribes, all the 
important cases are presented to the govern or- general, or Dejoimai, 
who usually gives himself much trouble to discover tlie truth; and 
then he frequently summons a learned man, \vith their code of civil 
laws, called Felka-Negest, the origin of which they attribute to Con- 
Btantiue. He often decides the punishment according to that rigo- 
rous code. The dejasmats, however, are at liberty to decide arbitrarily, 
in all cases: they frequently mitigate the punishment prescribed by 
the Fetha-Negeit : is general, thej are much leaa gevere tlua the 



Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia. 271 

kings were, when ttiey had power. A Ihief, for instance, was flogged 
for a first offence ; for a second, he had hi» right hand cut off; foe 
the third, he was killed : but now they flog him several times, before 
they cut off his limLs or kit! him. No jiidge has the power to decide 
the fate of a murderer (except the person killed be a stranger, wheS 
the dejasmat considers himself as related to him): this is left to the 
willof the relations of the person whom he has killed ; the judg« '' 
having only a right to propose a ransom instead of death, and to ex- 
hort the relations to accept it ; but he may not compel. The price 
for a man is two hundred and fifty dollars. When a man kills one of 
hi* own relations there is no punishment for him. They never pasB 
the Tacazze, from either side, to pursue a murderer. When the rela- 
tions of a murdered man are not known, as is the case in war. the 
priests take, in some way, the place of the avenger of blood, by refusing 
the sacrament to a murderer until he pays the price of blood, or two 
hundred and fifty dollars to the church. 

" Formerly, all important cases were brought beibre the king 
and his twelve leecs. (The leecs composed a kind of ministry, being 
both chosen and dismissed by the king, who, in his turn, could do 
nothing without them.) They alone had the right to judge in cri- 
minal raatturs ; but at present they jireserve nothing but the title, 
and the right to judge, in some particular eases, at Gondar only." 

II. " The religions of Abyssinia are Christianity, IsUmism, 
and Judaism ; to which may be added two separate people — the 
Caniaountes and the Zaiane." 

The Christians of Abyssinia are deeply sunk in superstition, 
and much given to theological discussion. Tliey are divided 
into three parties, so inimical to each other tliat they will not 
take the sacrament together: — the points of division being the 
nature, extent, and incidences connected with the tmion of the 
divine and human natures In the person of the Saviour. They 
baptize their male children after forty days, and their female after 
eighty; btUeving that these periods mark the periods when Adam 
and Eve respectively received the Holy Spirit. They do not 
baptize with water only, but with a merom, as the Greeks. 
After haptisra, un infant has a new dress put on, and receives also 
the conininnlon. Marriagcii are performed with great simplicity, 
ond are at easily dissolved; but after a third divorce, men can 
neither contract another regular marriage, nor receive tlie eacra- 
jnent, nnletis ihey become monks. In such cases, accordingly, 
they usually reconcile themselves to one of their previous wives. 
Tlie Abyssinian Christians do not believe In a separate purgatory, 
but conceive that the souls of all men go to hell, from which those 
that are to be saved are specially delivered by the Archangel 
Michael. They attach great importance to fasting; and have 
preserved many Jewish customs, as circumcision, ceremonial un- 
cteannessGS, abstaining from forbidden meats, &c. 



I 




272 Three Ytars^ Retidence in Abyssinia. 

" The Mahomedana appear to have multiplied in Abyssinia since 
the time of Bruce. The places where they are in greatest number 
are Adovvab and its vicinity; Hawasa, and the vicinity of ibe moun- 
tain Toioca in Samen, where the Jews were formerly independent; 
Derecta, in the province of Begameder; and Gondar. They live 
pretty well with the Christiana j but it ia only by their hypocrisy 
that they support each other, among themaelvea. They have 
sometimea friends of their own creed; but wherever friendship re- 
quires confidence, they aeek it among the Chriatians. Tliey have no 
greater aubject of discontent than to see themselves placed under a 
Mussulman ; although they will greatly rejoice when they hear that a 
man of their creed is in authority in another country. The Mussul- 
mans have seldom vast districts to govern, but have almost all the 
custom-houses ; for they use the merchants very ill, in order to give 
more presents to the Dejaamala than the Christian customers, who 
are more conscientious, can do. They generally engage much more 
in trade than the Christians ; therefore they have more money. They 
alone have the traffic of alaves, the Christians never taking any part 
in it. There ia nothing to say of their religion itself, for there are 
verv few possesaing the leaat knowledge of the Korfln ; and. provided 
they feed and clothe their sheiks or focaraa, these do not care about 
teaching them anything else than some favourite expressions of the 
Korfin, to flatter themselves in condemning others; but all of them 
are very zenlous to mnke proselytes. When the Mu^sulmaiis of Abvs- 
ainia go lo foreign countries, they learn to pray ; and pray regularly 
five timea a day, and observe the fast of Ramadan much more strictly 
than the Arabs : but after their return to tlieir own country, they 
generally forget their prayers, and do not care much for the Ramadan. 
Like the Christians and Jews, the Mussulman.') of Abyssinia never eat 
the meat of un animal not killed by a man of their own sect. In mo- 
ralitv, they are in every respect inferior to the Christiana. 

"The Falashas or Jews live so retired, and are so separated from 
the Christians, that the latter know scarcely anything either of their 
doctrines or of their manners. They live chiefly in the neighbourhood 
of Gondar and Shelga, and to the north-west of the Lake Tsana. 
I have done all I could to procure information concerning them; 
but have been able to ascertain one thing only ; viz. that they are 
much more ignorant than the Christians. Those whom I have seen 
always used to send me to one of their learned men, when I proposed 
any question to them. They do not know of what tribe they are ; 
nor have they any adequate idea as to the period when their ancestors 
settled in Abyssinia. Some say that it was with Menilec, the son of 
Solomon: others believe that they settled in Abyssinia after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem by the Romans. They have, on the whole, 
the same superstitions as the Christians; they are only a little modi- 
fied, after a Jewish fashion. I have never observed that they took 
the least interest in the idea of the Messiah ; and when I examined 
them on this subject, they coldly replied, that they expected him in 
the character of a great cooqueror, called Theodoroa, who must soon 



Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia. S73 

appear, and wbom the Christiana also expect ; but the poor Falashaa 
do not know whellier he wilt be a Christian or a Jew. What they 
have in common with other Jews is, hatred to Christ. They have a 
dialect among themselves, which has no similarity either with the 
Hebrew or with the Ethiopic; but all of them, except some females, 
speak Amharic. I have seen but one book in the FaLasha dialect, 
written in the Kthiopic character: they told me that it was a book of 
prayers. In fact, they must be very i^orant, having no books ex- 
cept in the Ethlopic Iangiiaf;e, and being surrounded with innumerable 
difficulties, which prevent them from learning that language. I have, 
honever, seen some individuals who know pretty well the contents of 
the Books of Mgses. They read the Psalms, with all the repetitions 
of In the name of the Father, the Son,' 8:c. which the Christiana 
have added to them, as well as the Songs of Mary and Simeon; but 
they do not join to them the Oodasse Mafiam of Ephrem. They are 
much more Ial>oriou3 than the other Abyssinians : the building of all 
the houses of Gondar is their work. They do not allow tlie Christiana 
to enter their houses, except by force; nor do the latter desire to 
enter them, fur fear of their supernatural influence. All of them are 
considered as boudas or sorcerers, as also are the artificers in iron and 
many others. The Falashas, after having spoken with Christians, 
never enter their own houses without first washing their bodies and 
changing their dress. All the provisions tliey buy in the market are 
washed by them before they make use of them. Their intercourse 
\iith the Mahomedans is a little more free than with the Christians. 
They never carry arms, either for attack or defence. They maintain 
their own poor, and will not suffer them to beg. 

"The Camaountes are a people few in number, inhabiting' the 
mountains about Gondar, Their principal occupation is agriculture ; 
bgl the women, with immense brass ear-rings, and their ears hanging 
down to their shoulders, furnish the market of Gondar with wood. I 
have not been able to go to their villages, finding nobody who would 
accompany nie. 1 have seen some of them in my house, but could not 
learn anything of their religion. I believe them to be Deists, satisfied 
with the idea of the existence of one God, without thinking of the re- 
lations He sustains to man — much like the Deists in Europe ; and 
therefore not to be trusted. When they are asked questions in 
general, and especially with regard to their religion, they always 
answer in an equivocal manner and in the tone of a buffoon. They 
nevertheless have a species of priests, and assemble themselves in their 
own private houses, where they have a repast, which they call 
' corban,' communion or eucharisC. They are afraid of sorcerers tuo, 
but they are not considered as such. They eat meat with the Chris- 
tians and Mahomedans, provided the animal has nut been killed on a 
Saturday; but they never eat lish. 

" The Zailnes are a migratory people, wandering about, with their 
herds, in the fertile but uncultivated environs of the Lake Tsana. or 
the Lake Dembea. I have seen but three or four of them : all were 
very tall, and robust. They are_said to believe in the existence of 

VOL. I 





£74 Tkne Yeart* Reaidenee in Abyatinia. 

one God, but to have no other religion. I am inclined to suppose that 
^orance has prevailed among them to such a degree as to separate 
ti^em from the Christians entirely, though their ancestors may have 
been Christians, which the other Abyisinians will not admit. They do 
not fight, except for the purpose of defeoding themselves ; and this 
they do with large sticks, which they handle so Hkilfullr, that no one 
dares to attack them, either with the lance or the sword." 

" III. The principal cause of the corruption of manners in Abyssinia 
Is, after their mental errors, their unsettled mode of living. A Go- 
vernor, for instance, does not like to remain long at the same place, 
even when there is no war. He resides sometimes at one end of the 
province which he governs, and sometimes at the other, with a great 
number of officers and servants. His first wife is frequently obliged 
to remain in the house to which he has taken her; and he, not willing 
to live alone, takes a concuoine. Thus the first sin being committed, 
he continues to odd others to the number, until he has lost every 
feeling of conjugal duty. Those who are with him are in the same 
situation, and do the same things. Several women being in this 
manner attached to one man, who is not their husband, and seeing 
themselves neglected, endeavour on their part to corrupt young men, 
whose situation should maintain them in innocence ; and thus im- 
morality is communicated to all the branches of society. Neverthe- 
less, openly they maintain much more decency than one would be led 
to suppose, after having read the description which Bruce gives of an 
Abyssinian feast. 1 admit that such a feast may have taken place 
among the most shameless libertines ; but excesses of that kind are 
not customary, either as to their cruelty or their indecency. I have 
heard people speak of many things ; but I have seen less indecency 
in the capital of Abyssinia than in the capitals of England, France, 
and Egypt, In Tign?, with the exception of Adonah and Antalo, 
the women are much more reserved than in the interior. The ordi- 
nary consequence of the immoralities alluded to is sloth ; from which 
results poverty, together with the desire to live, where pride is not 
offended, ina state of dependence on others : the result of which, again, 
is envy, craftiness, and fabehood. The Abyssinians are liars, as well 
as the Arabs ; but they have yet a feeling of shame when discovered, 
which the Arabs have not. The first consequence of falsehood ia 
swearing. Another series of vices, which also result from illicit con- 
nexions (for BO 1 call the polygamy of the Abyssinians, as they know 
very well that it is unlawful), is to be found in the circumstance, that 
the children of one and the same father, who are not of the same mo- 
ther, are always enemies to each other, in such a degree, that they 
cannot endure to see one another ; nor have thev any feeling of filial 
love for their father, inasmuch as he generally has a fatherly affection 
only for the children born of a favourite wife : not to mention their 
jealousies, and the consequences tliereof; which go so far, that an 
adulterer is often killed by his riial. This inconstancy in the inter- 
course of the sexes with each other may be observed during the 
Vi)o\e life of a man. It is this that renders the Abyssinians ao light- 



Bun 



Three Tears' Rendence in Abyttinia. VJS 

nundedi baving nothing constant but inronstancy itaelf ; although the 
children show less of levity than the children uf other countries. 

" It aSbrds me great satisfaction to he able to remark — but almost 
solely with reference to the Chiistians — that in the midst of the 
diaos of corruption in this conn try there are some traces of good- 
ness, which, like precious stones, have remained dispersed among the 
eooral ruins of Abyssinia. A traveller, for instance, is never at a 
loss to find a lodging ; when he arrives in the evening at a village, he 
seldom needs to ask for a lodging, the first person who sees him in- 
Tiies him to lodge at his house, where he may be as much at his ease 
OS if at home, and assured that, were he laden with gold, his host 
vould not touch the least thing. The Abyssinian traveller, on his 
part, unwilling to impose on the kindness of his host, spares his own 
provisions only when he is, as it were, forced to do so. I do not 
speak here of villages on those roads which are much frequented by 
caravans, and where the people learn too easily the colder manners of 
RtrxDgers. Tormerly the Abyssinians had much respect and attach- 
ment for the White people, and in the interior this is the case still ; 
but in Ti^r6, White people are often despised. The reason of this 
is, that the people of Tigre see much more of the White people than 
those in the interior ; ainl have but too many occasions lo observe, 
that in point of morals they are not superior to themselves, when they 
are in the same circumstances. Nevertheless, even inTigr^, I have 
never wanted a lodging when I have arrived in the evening : the 
people of the village frequently brought the best things they had, for 
the supper of myself and servants. 

" I have mentioned elsewhere, that the Abyssinians are robbers; 
but, with the exception of the ncighliourhood of the Shohos, where 1 
Uien was, they are robbers only in one sense. This is in times of 
anarchy, when every chief of a district Bssumes independence, with 
the intention of bringing the neighbouring districts under his power ; 
for which object he wants money, which he can only obtain by 
giving to his subjects liberty to pillage the strangers, and, if they can, 
the neighbouring districts. They look upon pillage, in this sense, as 
« right of war ; and it is in this respect that all of them are robbers. 
The interference of a governor or dejasmat prevents all this. There 
BfB many who endeavour lo cheat in the market ; but because thieves 
■TB punished severely, general disgrace is connected with stealing, 
which therefore is, comparatively, seldom committed ; and it is gene- 
rally easy to get the stolen articles back again. Once, for instance, 
I was in the camp of Waldn Michael, when a man complained that he 
hfid been robbed, without his knowing the thief. Immediately after, a 
priest was sent for, in order to pronounce an anathema upon the thief; 
who, at the end of a quarter of an hour, sent the stolen article hack, 
without making himself known. Thus they can nearly always effect 
the return of stolen articles; but in this case they do not inquire for 
the thief, lest the fear of punishment should render the anathema 
without elTect, The servants are generally more faithful than in 
Europe. Even a thief by profession tvouiil not roh his master's 

T 2 



I 

I 




S76 Tine Ytari Bmiaet m Alymimit. 

kooae ; tnd ifcovU this nrj rare cue happen, tke KnaaS wsU |Mt 
hinwelf m mck ■ ittnalkMi u nerer to be met with again hj Ua 
■Mticr. If tberc an »aj cxcepciaof , tbey an tkat the fankle aerTaBAa 
take amall thinp Kcretif to eat. The Abjanniana psmrii Aeir 
tUUren aeKnlj onl j when ther bare atolen. 1 have seoi a Bother, 
DsnaJIf of a Tery meek temper, and wbo would not Me a man canse 
aoffenng to the amaUest reptile, bum the ikin <^ both the bandi and 
lipi of her dai^ter, oolj nine jeara of age, for harii^ pot her finger 
into a vmg of hooer. 

" Though I have beard of aome acb of cruelty , atiU I must aqr, 
that in geneial the Abnrinian* are not cmeL In war they Karcdy 
ever kill a man whom ther take priMoer ; and when they aec that 
victoiy ii theirs, they prefer ""^"g K^^** orenita in otder to take 

n'KXier*, rather than kiUing those who AiU defend tbema^Tea 
ore them. The caaea in which they are cmel occur in the woonded 
of the oppoaite puty; they let them languish, and miaerably periah, 
when a little care would probably aave their lires. Nor are they 
cruel to auimala ; and therefore I can scarcely believe what Brace 
aays concerning their cruelty in this respect : and whencrer I have 
aaked the Abyssiuians whether it happens sometunea that pec^e cat 
off a piece of flesh from a living animal to eat it, tbcy have always 
manifested horror at it. But having myaelf experienced what ex- 
treme hunger is, I believe the possibility of any act a man ia capaUe 
of devising, in order to procure necessary food. If there are casea of 
cruelty, such as Bruce reports, they certainly are exceptions ; and 
particular cases of that kind are not wanting in Europe. I have seen 
pwenta chastiie their children for having plucked out feathers from a 
fowl which was not dead, although they were going to kiU it. 

" Toward the poor the Abyssinians are very charitable. Their 
motives may not always be the purest ; but God ooly knows these 
^roughly, it belongs not to me to judge. When at Gondar, in the 
time of dearth, I have known persons of fortune who entertained 
about sixty maimed persons ; and, in fact, when the Abyssinians have 
it in their power, they never send a beggar away without giving him 
something; they sometimes give beyond their means, for they will 
frequently suffer hunger in order to share the little they have with 
those who are still more miserable. In good seasons, therefore, there 
are but few beggars. The b^^ars almost always ask alms in the 
name of the saint of the day ; and, having eighteen festivals, or ixj* 
of idleness, every month, there is always some variety. 

" The Abyssinians are very easily provoked to anger ; bat they are 
as easily reconciled to each other. In Tigre, they sometimes beat 
each other in their disputes; but in the country of Amhara this 
scarcely ever takes place, for there the man who has beaten must pay 
a fine, proportionate partly to the offence and partly to his means; 
half of which is for him ivho has been beaten, unless he has also 
struck, in which ease both are fined. Sometimes they are seen to 
insult each other in such a manner that one would expect they 
Would never be reconciled again, and yet at the end of a quarter at 




Thrte Yearf Residawe in Abyumia, 277 

•n boor, they are often good friendg agun. Excepting the petty go- 
renion, vho sre jealous of the advantages of their equ^, and of 
those who are a little auperior to them, there ore scarcely any who 
Veto &p implacable hatred. The grandees pardon their inferion 
easily when they aak for pardon. For the reconciliation of two par- 
ties, there roust always be a mediator ; sometinies it is one of the 
parties that request him to exercise his fuuction ; this is the case par- 
ticularly when discords between husband and wife are to he settled. 
After having arranged between themselves, one of them, generally 
the most culpable, puts a large stone upon his neck, and, approach- 
ing the other, asks for pardon: the other, in saying to him ' May 
God forgive you ! ' takes the stone and puts it on his own neck, in 
order to ask pardon of the first ; who, on forgiving him, takes the 
stone and puts it again in its place. A master, however, seldom puts 
the stone on his own neck ; he contents himself, on forgiving his ser- 
vant, with taking the stone from his neck and putting it into his 
hands. They carry also a atone to an offended person, even if no dis- 
pute has taken place. One day, two of my servants, after having 
sought in vain, till ten o'clock in the evening, for a sheep they had 
lost, came to me, creeping on their hands and knees, each with a 
stone of about eighty pounds weight on his neck, to request me to 
heat them severely, as a proof that I forgave them, as a father for- 
gives his children after having chastised them. The stone they carry 
la generally a mill-stone. The rarest thing in Ahyssinia is for the 
relatives of a man who has been killed to forgive the murderer ; and 
when they do not agree upon a pecuniary fine, they make use of the 
same arms with which he has killed their relative to kill him : so that 
if he had killed a man with his hands, they would hill him with their 
hands also." 

We are happy to find that Mr. Gobat bears honourable testi- 
mony to the character left by Mr. Bruce in Abyssinia : many 
other things we leave behind to reward those who will examine for 
themselves a moderately-sized volume, regarding an interesting 
country, from the entry of the missionaries into which we may 
reasonably augur that, at no distant period, its population will 
become both more intelligent and better known. A valuable con- 
tribution to the Physical Geography at least of its Northern Pro- 
viocea mayi we believe, be shortly expected from Dr. Ruppell. 



( 278 ) 

VIII. — 1. Jounvj/ to the North of India, Overlandfrom England 
through Ruttia, Portia, and Affghanislan. By Lieutenant 
A. Conolly. London, 1834. S vols. 8vo. pp. 834. 

S. Traveli into Bokhara, being the Account of a Journey Jrom 
India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia. By Lieutenant A. 
BuTDes, F.R.S. London, 1834. 3 vols. 8vo. pp. 1229. 

Two interesting and important narratives of travels across 
Western Asia have been published within the last year, and are 
named above in the order of their appearance. 'I'hey have both 
excited considerable attention, and been analyzed in almost every 
contemporary journal ; so that under ordinary circumstances we 
should have thought only a very cursory notice of iheni here neces- 
sary. But as the author of the second has received from the 
Koyal Geographical Society its Royal Premium for the current 
year, a somewhat more extended review of his labours seems in- 
dispensable ; and in such an abstract it is impossible entirely to 
overlook the contemporary, and, though less important, tlie scarcely 
less meritorious, exertions of his brother officer. 

It is, indeed, highly creditable to the East India Company's 
Military Service, that in one year two such works should have 
proceeded from it. There is an essential difference betweeo 
them, doubtless ; but the moral qualities of the travellers are 
similar, the dangers and dil!iculties which they overcame were of 
the same character, and the light which togetht^r tiicy have thrown 
on the geography of North Western Asia is more steady and ex- 
tended than any previously possessed. Much of what our tra- 
vellers saw, indeed, was reported to Klphinstone and Fraser ; and 
it is at once curious and interesting to observe how minutely ac- 
curate their hearsay accounts prove, in many instances, to have 
been. But the mere want of confirmation under which these pre- 
viously laboured detracted from their value. What was not known 
to be true was as though it had been false. And much as the 
public is indebted to Messrs, Bnrnes and Conolly, we know ijot 
if a peculiar debt be not due to them by the above gentlemen, far 
having proved how carefully, how laboriously, and how success- 
fully they had sifted the desultory, and, without doubt, often con- 
tradictory statements made to them by their native authorities. 

We have said above, that there is an essential difference be- 
tween the works before us ; and we mean by this a difterence not io 
route only. Lieutenant Bumes's book is of a higher, because 
a more complete character throughout Lieutenant Conolly 
appears to have had few or no inttrumenta with bim. and bit 
curiosity seems to have been much more actively directed to 
the moral aud political aspect of the countries which he traversed^ 



^-^ 



Travels tlirougk Centrai Asia. 279 

tban lo their topography. There is thus very little physical geo- 
graphy in his two voluQies : and his map has been very imperfectly 
coDipiled here, without any aid from himself; it is, in truth, im- 
possible to follow him with only its assistance. Lieutenant Bumes, 
on the contrary, was well provided will) instruments, and studied 
to make his journey a tlyiug survey. His map, compiled by one 
of our most laborious geographers*, from every available source, 
and largely benefited by his own labours, is without doubt the 
most perfect now existing of the country which it embraces. Aoi 
bis active, inquisitive temper, and general intelligence, enabled 
him, while on his journey, to direct his inquiries far and wide on 
both sides of his iniinediate route ; so that he has made a large 
accession to the conjectural as well as precise geography of this 
part of Asia. We come now to particulars. 

1. Lieutenant Coiiolly left England for India, in August, 1829 j 
and having resolved to go overland, passed through Russia, and 
along the western shores of the Caspian, to Tabreez, whence it 
was his original purpose to proceed to Ilushirc, and thence em- 
bark for Bombay. Encouraged, however, by the facilities whicb 
seemed promised in Persia for eD'ecting a journey across Toork- 
histan and AfTghanlstan, and desirous ot adding to the informa- 
tion possessed of these countries, he changed his plan and 
proceeded from Tabreez to Aslrabad, where he arrived in April, 
1830. There two roads lay before him— one by way of Khiva, 
Bokhara, and Caubul : the other through Khorassan, by Herat 
and Candahar, to the Indus; and, as being the most curious and 
difBcult, he first decided on the former, prefacing the detail of his 
attempt to accomplish it with a brief account of the nomade 
tribes occupying the desert north and east of the Caspian, among 
whom he thus adventured. This does not materially alter, or add 
to, what Mr. Fraser has before given us ; but is interestiiig as a 
general corroboration of it. 

The Toorkmuns, according to Mr. Conolly, are divided into at 
least four, and probably more, principal tribes, almost always at 
war with each other, and with the neighbouring Persian posts. 
Theae, in tlie order of their occurrence, proceeding from Astrabad 
towards Khiva and the 0\us, are the Yiniools, Gokliins, Tekkahs, 
and I^erruxes. Each has an allotted portion of the desert as its 
peculiar beat, and moves about within this, and frequently beyond 
It, as the wants of its cattle, or the predatory habits of its people, 
may suggest. The first and third are the most powerful; but 
eacli is subdivided into many families, which hold together by a 

John AiTOWtmilh. The map in ijuestioa is Ko. 29 uf Ills New Atlas, and 
ed also with Mr. Conull)''s Ijook. With itgaid to Uw AUm, we ■ 
•f it ia liiis Joumol, p, 320. 




280 TVaveU through Central Asia. 

my slender bond of union. Sbah Abbas introduced among 
them B tribe of Koords, whom he removed from the Turkish froutier 
to this locality, in hopes of protecting Persia by iaterposing them 
between it and the Toorkmuns ; but the succen of this policy has 
not been great. These Koords are now not the least powerful or 
restless of the neighbours of Penia in this direction. 

The Goklans, being a small tribe, and often at eumity with the 
others, are the most submissive to and dependent on Persia. They 
also live more settled than the others, and possess large herds and 
flocks. All the tribes, however, are divided into Charwars and 
Cboomoors, that is. Rovers and Settlers; of whom the relative 
proportions vary in the several tribes. 'Fhe distinction is one of 
employment, not family, a Charwar becoming a Chooraoor, and 
vice vena, at will. Both breed horses ; but those of the former, 
that is, those bred in the desert, are preferred. The former have 
■lao many camels, with floclu of sheep and goats, but neither 
oxen nor poultry. The latter have all, and, besides, cultivate grain. 
The individual wealth of many is great. Mr. Conolly mentions 
one who possessed 700 camels, 5000 sheep and goats, 200 mares, 
and several " necks'-fuU " of money. The Toorkmims keep their 
money and other small valuables in large purses made of the necks 
of camels' hides. 

For the privileges of pasture and cultivation, the Toorkmuns, 
according to their proximity, acknowledge a dependence on the 
Shah of Persia or Khan of Khiva ; but ihey are very independent 
liegemen, to Persia in particular, and currently joiu in parties to 
carry off Persians into slavery. Being Soonnees in their religion, 
they sell Persians, whom, as Sheahs, they consider entitled to no 
better treatment, to their brethren in belief of Khiva and Bokhara. 
And thus an Astrabadee dare not penetrate the desert, even so 
far as Goorgaun, a considerable river almost on tiie boundary, 
without the safeguard of a Toorkniuu ; and a Toorkmun, in like 
manner, will not venture to Astmbad unguaranteed. 

Among these wild tribes, then, Mr. Conolly Jirst adventured, 
desirous of proceeding to Khiva. His companion was a native of 
11 indoostan, called Syud Karaumut Allee, who had long resided 
in Persia, and Joined him at Tabreez ; and of whose intelligence 
and presence of mind he uniformly speaks in high terms. They 
both passed as merchants ; and bargained with a Toorkmun, called 
Peerwullee, to furnish them with four camels, and transport ihem 
and their baggage. Accordingly on the 26th April they set off 
and forded the Goorgaun, already noticed, which was here about 
siity yards wide, and four feet deep. When the rains are down, 
however, it is a much more considerable stream, and held aacred 
by the Toorkmuns, who swear by it 

The travellers rode in kajavaht; orcrifa^ aboatfbwrfieet long hj 



Travels throufjh Central Asia. 281 

two wide, in which they stowed their beddhig, and sat or lay » 
they best could. A camel carries two of them, and they are 
balanced against each other with very little other fastening; bo 
that they are both inconvenient and insecure. The direction of 
the route was northerly, and after leaving the ineadow-land on the 
immediate banks of the river, the soil «as dry and light, having 
here and there patches of good j>r;iss, but only small thorns and 
weedy bushes besides. On the 27lli they crossed the Attruck, a 
river about as deep as the Goorgaun, but a third less wide, and 
S7 miles beyond it. Its immediate banks are again a better 
country, but beyond them the desert aspect returns. 

On the 28th tliey passed the remains of what appeared to have 
been once a considerable town, but could obtain no information 
regarding it. iluins are here usually called the forts of Koostum- 
e-Zal, Roosluui the bjon of Zal, the Hercules of Persian history. 
They also passed several small Vinioot encampments, where thev 
obtained slight refreshments, as camel's ckaal, or butlcr-milk, 
with boiled rice, &,c. On the 'jyth little occurred of importance : 
butonUieSOth, tlieir course being still about N.N.E,, they arrived 
at, and ascended for above two hours to the N.E., what appeared 
to be the deserted bed of a once very large river. Its breadth 
was 1000 paces, ihe bottom grusel and pebbles, the banks high 
and much worn, and occasionally broken into a succession of deep 
parallel ravines, each the size of a nullah. The travellers wished 
to believe this the (supposed) ancient course of the Oxus ; and 
Mr. Conolly argues in favour of the probability that that river did 
once How into the Caspian. But he admits that this particular 
spot is scarcely far enough north to correspond with the traditions 
on this head ; and he is compelled to solve the physical diAicultiea 
arising from the known, or at least believed level of the country, 
and which for the most part incline geographers to doubt the truth 
of these traditions, by a still more uncertain one of an earthquake, 
laid by Captain MoraviefV to have occurred 500 years ago, and 
to have materially altered the general face of the country. 

Beyond this river-course the aspect of the desert became per- 
ceptibly worse. It was a barren while plain, on which there was 
scarcely a blade of verdure ; and the view, at even the shortest 
distance, was distorted by tnirai/e. It is said in the East that this 
phenomenon is caused by the refraction of the suns rays on a salt 
Eoil ; and the soil here is strongly impregnated with salt, layers of 
it being often found on the surface, which, when seen through 
this mirage, have the appearance of while buildings. Bushes 
have thus also the appearance of a forest ; and the figures of men 
or camels look spectral. A few horses and antelopes were seen 
in this tract, and the dosert rat (an animal slighter thau the coni- 
noa rat, with a tuft on the tip of its tail, and which springs with 



I 




S8a Travelt ikrough Ctntral Ana. 

four feet like & kangaroo) was every where common. The 
Arabs eat thia animal as a dainty : the Toorkmuns are more nice. 
One cuckoo was seen ; with some beautiful perroquets (the body 
green, head and wings of a rich brown colour) ; and one flight of 
birds like the Indian minas. " The scene," Mr. Conolly gays, 
" was desolate, but there was great beauty in it in ihe stillness of 
broad twilight." 

On the 2nd of May, (he party was joined by four horsemen, 
friends of their guide Peerwullee, and who speedily showed them- 
selves his accomplices in a plot to intimidate, if not rob aud 
murder, the travellerg. The next two chapters are accordingly 
occupied by a personal narrative of considerable interest, but not 
immediately to the purpose of this Journal. We shall not, there- 
fore, follow it, but merely select points in it which seem deserving 
of notice. 

The frequent occurrence of ruins in this desert has already been 
adverted to ; and some of these are in good preservatiou. 
" Meihed-e-Misreaun," says Mr. Conolly of one of them so 
called, " was plainly visible about four miles to the west; and as 
we afterwards marched on, we passed close under the south wall of 
this ruined city. It was four-square, each face of somewhat 
more than three-fourths of a mile. We counted twenty-five 
bastions in the south face ; they were chiefly of burnt brick, and 
some were double. Being mounted on camels we could see over 
the broken wall, before ^^hich was a nearly tilled up ditch. In the 
centre of the ruined houses were two very high broken minarets, 
and a stuccoed mosque in good preservation ; on two sides were 
also remains of high arclied gates, such as now front royal resi- 
dences in Persia. In advance of the south wall was a watch- 
tower, and fronting the eastern entrance was a large while masque 
in excellent repair. Outside the city there bad evidently been 
ruined houses and gardens ; and at some miles distance we 
passed a broken mosque. 

" Of Meshed-e-Misreaun we could obtain no satisfactory ac- 
count ; and from what the Toorkmuns said, it was evident that 
they knew nothing about it. They ascribe its ruins to an invasion 
of the Calmuck Tartars, which took place five hundred yean ago; 
but I can scarcely believe that so long a time has elapsed since it 
was deserted. There are many other lai|;e ruined towns in advance 
of the present Persian frontier, which probably only fell to decay 
when the founder of the Karasmian dynasty invaded Khonupa at 
the death of Shah Ismael Sofi, three hundred years ^go. We q^n 
told that there were many inscriptions inside of iheoh Vri thK 
coins had been found and sold to Persian moaej-clpfigec|,n, ., , . 

Considering the social system of the TooHtnHMifi j ] 
avowed predatory habits, both property tni pH^HIil 



Traveh through Central Asia. 283 

whole, safer amoDg them tiiaii might be expected. Mr. Couolly'g 
treacherous guide, PeerwiiUee, whose ultimate objects were scarcely 
concealed, and who fretjiieiitly sought to fasteu a quarrel on them 
that he might have a pretext for putting them in executioo, was 
yet CDDstaully restrained by the want of this pretext, and ulti- 
mately was compelled to release them on fair terms by the force 
of opinion in his tribe. Their baggage was also searched, and 
espenses were accumulated on them till their money was nearly 
all taken ; but having come us guests, they were not directly 
plundered. When they came away, the horses on which they rode 
were only allowed to go a certain distance on the road ; and Mr. 
Conolly assigns as a reason what shows lax moral principle, but yet 
a respect for law. When a Toorkmun sells a horse to one of his 
own people, he is allowed to specify, if he desires it, the places 
to which it is not to be takrn; and if the buyer neglects the 
caution, and the animal is subsequently claimed at any one of 
these places, the loss is his own. But if the seller dues not warn 
a purchaser against a place, and the horse is there proved a stoleo 
oae, he muet refund ]he purchase-money. 

The travellers altogether advanced about two hundred and ten 
miles beyond Astrabad, and had the remainder of the road to 
Khiva described to them. Their advance was to what is considered 
eight days' journey j it is twelve more to Khiva ; and the country 
becomes progressively so much drier, that water must be carried. 
It continues, however, hard ; and any sand met with is for the 
most part gathered into broad ridges, kept down by a little vege- 
tation, near which water is generally found. The soil near the 
Caspian Sea, and rivers Dowing into it, is of much belter qualiEy; 
and might, Mr. Conolly thinks, be easily cultivated. He thinks 
it probable, moreover, that the Russians, in prosecution of their 
almost avowed designs on Khiva, may, at some time or other, be 
induced to make this attempt; but he doubts their power of 
holding Turcomania permanently, however successful they miglit 
be in capturing Khiva, and retaining it for a short time. 

The Khan of Khiva's authority is acknowledged by 300,000 
souls: of whom about 30,000 are Oosbegs, lords of the soil by 
right of conquest; 100,000 are Sarts, the inhabitants of the 
country before the Oosbegs took it; about as many more are 
Kara-Kalpachs, who are settled near Lake Aral; and the remain- 
dsj- are Toorkmuns, a few Kirghiz, and some Taujicks, or do- 
mesticated people of foreign extraction. Much jealousy exists 
1 ' sa the Oosbegs and Toorkmuns; the first being overbear- 
e latter mutinous : but the Khan of Khiva has more 
is subjects than the Shah of Persia. 

are very plain, and when not quite young, 
he Toorkmuns carry off many beautiful 



i2B4 Travels throvijh Central Asia. 

Persian women annuallj' for sale at Khiva and Bokhara, theyterf 
seldom intermarry witli tliem. ThU is partly owing to covetoDs- 
ness, and partly to llie degradation to which the offspring of iBcll 
a marriage are condemned : ihey are called Kouls (litenU;, 
slaves), though they live among, and on general terms of equabji 
with, the Eegs, or free-borti. Certain important privileges m 
withheld from them, however ; in particular, thej are m ithout the 
pale of ordinary social protection, and an Eeg of another tribe niiy 
kill one of them without entniling on himself a death-feud. They 
nre becoming numerous, however; the more so as the stain u 
ineffaceable, and their children all remain in the same rank. B; 
the same means their servitude is also becoming light. 

Smoking is reckoned disgraceful among the Toorkmuns ; and 
the reason assigned is a polemical one : — " It is wrilten in the 
Huddees," as was explained to Mr. Conolly. " that he who makes 
himself like those of another tribe, becomes as one of that tribe. 
Now Sheahs, Hindoos, and Jews all smoke, and we by smoking 
would assimilate ourselvei> to them— -which God forbid I " 

The arms of the Toorkmuns are a sword, light lance, and, 
where possible, a gun ; the bow and arrow are almost quite gone 
out. As soldiers they ate extraordinarily patient of fatigue (as are 
also their horses) ; and as brave as most irregular troops, wtiOK 
tactic it is to fight only at an advantage. They cover their headi 
with a large sheep-skin cap, and when on horseback generally 
wear boots wilh pointed iion-lipped heels; but their dress other- 
wise is not uniform, being made up frequently of articles taken in 
plunder. 

On Mr. Conolly's return to Astrabad he joined a caravan of 
pilgrims proceeding to Mestied, to worship at the shrine of the 
Imuiim Reza, the last of the immediate descendants of Allee, aixl 
the object of especial reverence to all devout Sheahs. Thence he 
accompanied a subsidiary Affghaun force on its return lo Herat; 
where he was reduced lo extreme difficulties by the want of tbe 
necessary fniids to pursue his journey. Wilh these he was ulti- 
mately supplied by a Candahar merchant, one of the Syuds of 
ciders of Pisheen, a race supposed to be hneal descendants of 
Mahomet, and as such held in high reverence: they are settled 
in the valley of Pisheen, about three days' journey south of Caii- 
dahar. This individual had been in India, and was familiar with 
the names of some of the most distinguished British resideoB 
there: he knew them also for benefils conferred on hJm:— 
" Mr. Elphinstone had given his brother's son a handful of moner 
for answering a few questions ; M r. Cole of M3aore had bought a 
hoise of him ; Hunter Sahib had given him a rifle; we were a moil 
excellent tribe, who never gave our words falsely ; and, please 
God, he would take my debts on his head, and convey me safely 



Travels through Central Asia. 285 

to Hindoostan."' It was, no doubt, very gratifying to Mr. Conolly 
to be relieved from his difficulties ; but the manner in which it 
was effected must have been even more gratirviiig still. 

Under the guidance, then, of the good Syud Mulieen Shah, the 
remainder of the journey was effected through Candahar, Quetta, 
Dauder, and Baugh, to Shikarpoor, and ucross ihe Indus at 
Bukkur. The utmost caution was neces>iary throughout, tlte 
wild Belooches habitually inl'esling the passes of the mountains 
traversed; and even worse enemies being often to be found in 
the lawless governors of the forts maintained to keep them and 
otiier marauders in check. But the holy character and the con- 
sutniDate address of the Syud surmouiiled all difficulties ; and ihe 
disposition seems certainly strong in ihe Afl'ghaun authorities, 
however hostile may be the inioleritnt impulites of their followers, 
to court the Engliish power. 

We shall now, however, return on our traveller's steps, and 
glean the principal facts to which he has called our atlentiou. 
The routes between Astrabad and Meshed seem very various : 
ibree English travellers have recently traversed this ground— Mr. 
Fraser, Lieutenant Conolly, and, us we shall see in the sequel. 
Lieutenant Burnes; and each by a different road. This appears 
to proceed from ihe lawless state of the country, which makes it 
expedient for travellers to throw as much uncertainty over their 
movements as poNsible ; and is facilitated by the contracted width 
and comparatively low elevation of the Elboorz, or Para-pomisan, 
chain at this point. Its course is nearly E. by S. ; and although 
trausverse valleys of a somewhat higher elevation, and more feitile 
character, intersect it on both sides, yet, as a general statement, it 
may be said, that tlie great Toorkmun Desert, on the one hand, 
>nd the salt desert of Yezd on the other, extend respectively to ita 
base. Beyond Meshed it widens, and also rises to a higher 
elevation. Its southern face turns to the S.E., its northern pro- 
ceeds on nearly as before; and it ihus gradually blends with the 
mass of Hindoo Koosli, of which it is a prolongation. 

The iuHuence of this contiguration of country on the moral and 
social condition of its inhabitants is very striking ; and though not 
expressly pointed out, may be distinctly traced both in ihe pages 
of fraser and Lieutenant Conolly. The immense contiguous 
deserts can only be occupied, at least in the absence of civilization, 
b J wandering and predatory tribes; and even the hill-counlry is 
euinenlly adapted for the occupancy of unquiet spirits. Every 
mountain-top is a fastness, every pabS a detile, every prolonged 
valley an opening for a sudden incursion ; their conquests are 
rapid, but seldom complete — success is alternate, blood-feuds 
are perpetuated. Unless when the iron Imnd of a Nadir, or an 
Aga Mahomed Khan, presses on all alike, the whole is in con- 



L 




MS IVooeb Uirmtgh Onfral A»h. 

fiiBion; and we are almost reconciled to the aangtiifiaT; deapot- 
iitna which, in a peculiar manner, atain the Persian annalB, by 
observing that the sufTerings of the people are jet more aerere in 
the interrals between them. 

The holy city of Meshed has been so well described by Mr. 
Fraaer, that both Mr, Conolly and Mr. Burnes decline to add to 
the detaib given by him. Herat is a well-fortilied town, three- 
quarter! of a mile stjaare. It conlains about 45,000 inhabitanU, 
most of whom are Sbeahs — perhaps 1000 of the remainder are 
Hindoos ; and there are forty families of Jews. It is, beyond all 
conception, filthy and dirty; from the main streets smaller ones 
branching off, which are covered over, and form low dark tunnels, 
containing every offensive thing. The suburbs and adjoining 
counUy, however, are singularly beauiirul. The city is built four 
miles from hills on the one side, and twelve miles on the other ; 
and this whole expanse is one beautiful extent of small fortified 
villages, gardens, vineyards, and corn-fields ; brightened by many 
■mall streams of shining water, which cut the plains in all direc- 
tions. A bund, or dyke, is thrown across the river Herirood, and 
its waters, turned into many canals, are so conducted over the 
whole vale of Herat, that every part is watered. The most deli- 
cious fruits are thus grown : and the climate is also salubrious, 
though cholera and small-pox, from time to time, make great 
ravages ; and the general habits of the people are so extraordi- 
narily filthy, that any contagious disease must spread rapidly 
among them. 

Herat is at present the capital of the yet remaining Affghaun 
empire of Shah Ktimraun, the nephew of Shah Shooja, to whom 
Mr. Eiphinstone's embassy was addressed; but the principal part 
of his dominions are occupied by the rebellious brothers of his 
celebrated vizt«r Futteh Khan, whom, in his Jealousy, he first 
blinded, and afterwards caused to be assassinated in his presence. 
The lower classes of his subjects still reverence in him the repre- 
sentative of their ancient nionarchs ; and while Mr. Conolly 
passed through the country he was witness to the cordiality 
with which they received a report that he was about to take the 
field against his enemies. But his character is weak and avari- 
cious ; he is besides sunk in excess : and Mr. Conolly thinks it 
more probable that Herat will be speedily occupied by the Per- 
sians, and the Affghauns be driven farther east, than that their 
empire will revive, at least in the legitimate line. 

There are three roads from Herat to Candahar, of which our 
traveller was taken by the most difficult, being the most hilly, and 
probably also the most secure. That taken many years ago by 
Mr. Foster is still the usual kafilah road; and the third is said 
to be similar to it. Along Mr. Conolly's route the population is 



Travels through Central Asia. 

estremely thin, and tlie adjoining country was diiefly pastured, 
some favoured spots, however, being reserved for cultivation, chiefly 
in the neighbourhood of small towns, as Furrah, Subzaur, Ghore, 
and others, which have probably grown up from this circumstance. 
Candahar is itself a considerable city, containing, as Mr. Conolly 
was led to believe, a population of about 60,000 souls ; but he 
was unable himself to visit it, being extremely ill, and lodged at a 
place called Ghoondee Munsoor Khan, about sixteen miles north, 
where his friend and guide had an establishment. Candahar is 
one of the considerable places of the empire possessed by Futleh 
Khan's brothers, who rule it oppressively, and are much disliked ; 
dirscribingit, the Syud's words to Mr. Conolly were, " You know 
wbai Heraut is I Well then, imagine, if you can, a town and people 
some degrees more filthy. Togf! I spit upon the beards of such 
beasts ; I shall never be clean again." 

Candahar is, however, the centre of a great trade, and though 
oppressed, the district in which it is situated must raise a great 
quantity of grain, as this is cheap in its market. The climate is 
not so favourable as that of Herat, but the soil is naturally better; 
and the supply of water being more copious, the labour of irriga- 
tion is in great measure spared. 

The next place where our traveller halted for some days, and 
was most hospitably entertained, was the valley of Pisheen, or 
Pishing, the house of his guide Syud Muheen. This is about 
thirty miles broad, and twice as long ; and is protected Irom injury 
in a turbulent neighbourhood, by the sanctity and peaceable pro- 
fession of its inhabitants. Of the manners of these, their grades 
of society, genealogies, superstitions, amusements, and the like, 
Mr. Conolly gives a detailed account, conceived in a tone of 
interest which well becomes one so much obliged to them. 

Queila was his next considerable halt. It is the capital of the 
Belooche province of Shaul, and is a town of 400 small Hat- 
roofed houses of one story, surrounded by a mnd wall, in which 
there are four gates. In the centre is a citadel bullion a high 
mound. The resirfents are AHghauns, Belooches, and Hindoos, 
the last of whom are all engaged in trade, which is considerable. 
Besides that which passes through, Quetla is a rendezvous where 
Indian and Affghaun merchants, not disposed to undertake the 
whole journey, meet and exchange their commodities. Horse 
dealers also resort here in considerable numbers, whence they 
either send their horses through Ueloochistaun and Sinde to the 
sea-coast, where they are embarked for Bombay, or forward them 
direct to the Punjab, by the route which Mr. Conolly pursued. 
The Syud Muheen's chief venture, when escorting him, was horses. 

Beyond Quetta the greatest physical difficulties occurred which 




988 Traveli through Ceatral Atia." 

«era met on die whole road. Hitherto the line of route had 
chiefly skirted the faJllH, ascending and descending small secondary 
elevations; but now the Kirklekhee hitia were to be directly 
crossed, the first of a close and high series which divide Khorassan 
from the Upper Sinde. Several passes are in use across them, of 
which Mr. Conollj describes two— Bolaun, by which he passed, 
and another, of which he heard. Both are extremely difficult. 
Regarding Bolaun, his words are, " The minutest description 
could hardly convey a just idea of its strength ; it is a defile which 
a regiment of brave men could defend against an army ;" and 
regarding the other, " This road is so difficult, that it is only taken 
when danger is apprehended in the other defile. Horses all lose 
their shoes when they come this way." 

Dander is the next considerable town. " Viewed from hence," 
Mr. Conolly says, " the mountains which we had left presented the 
appearance of one very high range, coming up north from the sea, 
and crossing the Tukhatoo chain at right angles, so as distinctly 
to separate the mountains from the plain country." Dauder is 
about the size of Quetta, and one-third inhabited by Hindoos; 
the others are Yuts and Belooches. The plain on which it is 
situate is white and arid, and cracked like the dry bed of a marsh. 
Thirty-six miles farther is Baugh, a town of 2000 houses, also 
containing many Hindoos. The adjoining fields to it are watered 
by irrigation from the Narree, a river which, coming from the 
Tukhatoo, or Larree Mountains, runs south, and finally joins the 
Indus; and beyond this the road lay through the plain to Shi- 
karpoor, marked from stage to stage with large villages, but not 
requiring particular notice. 

Mr. Conolly adds to his book two appendices, one containing 
an epitome of modem AITghaun history, the other a discussion on 
the danger to be apprehended from the Russians advancing on 
India from the north-west. From what he states, this seems very 
slight ; or, if it exist at all, it is at least distant : hut as the subject 
is not purely geographical, we forbear to enter on it. We have 
been much gratified by learning, since the preceding was written, 
that Syud Muheen did not, at the close of the journey, go without 
the reward due to his generous conduct in the course of it. 
Besides many handsome presents, the Governor- General, Lord 
William Bentiuck, offered him the loan, without interest, of fifty 
thousand rupees (5000/.), for three years, on condition that at 
the end of this lime he should submit his accounts to examina- 
tion, and thereby show the nature and value of the internal trade 
of his country : and, to a lesser extent, viz., twenty thousand 
rupees, this interesting experiment is now going on. Syud Mu- 
heen declined to be responsible for a larger sum. 



Ttavela through Central Asia. 

II. Lieiilenant Burnes's route was mare extended than ttie 
above. He tirst ascended the Indus to Lahore, charged with 
presents from his Majesty to Ruiijeet Singh. Ue thence visited 
the Governor-General at Simlah; returned to Lahore; proceeded 
through Attock, Pe^hawur, Cuubul, Balkli, Bokhara, and Me- 
shed to Astrabad ; visited the Persian court at 'I'abreez; and returned 
by way of 13ushire and the Persian Gulf. As his memoir on the 
Indus has been already published in this Journal, we shall not go 
over that ground again ; but, taking him up at Lahore, follow him 
step by step throngh his subset]uent Journey. 

The mission to the court of Lahore having increased Lieutenant 
Bumes's desire to extend his travels, he proposed passing throngii 
Central Asia towards the Caspian Sea as an officer of the British 
army returning to Europe, a mode he considered moie prudent 
than travelling ns an accredited government agent. Having re- 
ceived from Lord William Ilentiiick, the Governor-General, the 
moat liberal encouragement, and prevailed on Mr. .lames Gerard, 
surgeon of the Bengal army, to accompany him, he left Delhi on 
the 23d of December, 1831, and proceeded by expresa lo Lodiana, 
a frontier station of British India. 

Previous to entering on his journey, it was deemed necessary to 
receive permission of Runjeet Sing, the rnler of tlie Punjab, for 
which purpose a visit to Lahore was again to be made. Leaving 
Lodiana, he descended the Sutlege to its contluence witli the Beas 
or Hyphasis, and after a journey of fifty miles encamped at Hurree, 
on the banks of the latter river below its junction with the Beas, 
These united rivers form a beautiful stream, never fordable, iiJS 
yards wide at this season, but with an actual channel of one mile 
and a half in breadth ; ils velocity was two miles and a. quarter an 
hour, perfectly clear, twelve feet in depth, and of the temperature 
of 57°- About this spot our travellers searched for the Altars of 
Alexander; which, according to Major Uennell, aliould lie between 
the Beas and the Sullege, but without success. At Hurree, they 
were met by an escort from Runjeet to conduct them safely to 
Lahore, the roads not being altogether safe in consequence of the 
Seik fanatics; and on the l^th of January commenced their journey 
across the Manja. as the country between the Beas and Ravee is 
called. It is the highest portion of the Punjab, east of the Hy- 
daspes ; the soil is a hard indurated clay, producing thorny shrubs 
and brambles. The Mogul emjierors had fertilized this tract by 
intersecting it with canals, traces of which may still be seen. 

The first town they entered was Puttee, built in the reign of 
Akbar, and containing about oOOC) persons ; one of the royal studs 
was kept here containing about sixty brood mares, fed exclusively 
on barley and a kind of creeping grass. At the next town, called 



290 Trnrels through Central Asia. 

Pidana, one of the principal sirdars or chiefs had been sent from 
Lahore to entertain them at his family mansion, a baronial castle, 
surrounded by a village peopled by his retainers. These buildings, 
though always in the military style, of a quadrangular shape, with 
lofty walls and turrets, are inferior to the fortified dwellings of the 
Rajpoot chiefs of the Marwar. In their progress to Lahore ihey 
entered on the great road of Juhangeer, a broad and beaten way 
once shaded with trees, and studded with minarets and caravan- 
sertisy many of which still remain to mark the munificence of the 
Mogul emperors. 

On the 17th of January they reached Lahore, and were waited 
on by a deputation from the Maharaja, expressing the greatest 
friendship, and leaving a purse of 1 100 rupees, a present which it 
was impossible to decline without giving offence. At Hurree and 
Pidana, the chiefs had presented them with bows and a purse of 
money, but in both instances the latter had been refused. On the 
following morning our travellers visited Runjeet Sing in an audi- 
ence tent pitched in a garden about two miles out of the town, and 
surrounded by troops. His reception of them was marked with the 
greatest affability, and he requested them to continue as long as 
possible at his court, promising to show them some tiger-hunting, 
and to give them an entertainment at his palace. The country is 
said to be subject to earthquakes, and our travellers experienced a 
slight shock during their stay; yet the lofty minarets of Lahore 
afford a convincing proof that there can have been no very violent 
commotion of nature since they were built, about two centuries 
ago. This shock was felt, as they afterwards learnt, along the 
whole upper course of the Oxus at the same time, where villages 
were overthrown and some thousands buried in their ruins. The 
range of temperature is very great here, since the thermometer, 
which they were told had stood at 102° in July, now fell to 28*. 

About a week after their arrival, they were invited to the Ma- 
haraja^s camp, which was about twenty miles from the town, on 
the banks of the Ravee. The scene is described as magnificent — 
Runjeet*8 pavilion was of red cloth, while his troops and chiefs 
were cantoned in picturesque groups around. On the morning of 
the 27th, the whole camp was in motion ; his highness was on an 
elephant bearing a houda of gold ; his horses were led before him, 
and a small body of cavalry with a field-piece formed his escort. 
In the evening the tents were again pitched, and next morning 
saw them all prepared for hunting wild boars, with little proba- 
bility of escape for the poor animals from a company of infantry, 
two or three hundred horsemen, foresters with rude halberds, a 
party of Seiks, and a pack of dogs of motley breed. The scene 
was lively and exciting ; in half an hour eight monsters had bitten 



Travels ikrovtjh Central Aaia. S9I 

the dust, aitij many more were entrapped \n snares; and in the 
course of an hour and a half the party returned to their tenia, 
where the successrul sportsmen were rewarded. At the end of 
die month they returned to Lahore, where a hundred cannon an- 
qounced the arrival of llunjeet Siug. 

On lite 6th of I'ebruary the festival of the busunt (spring) was 
celebrated with great splendour. All the troops were drawn out 
uuiformly dressed in yellow, which is the gala costume of this 
carnival ; the Maharaja passed down the line, at the end of which 
were llie royal tents lined with jellow, among which waa a canopy 
qf pearls and precious stones valued at a lac of rupees. At one 
end Runjeet took his seat, heard for about ten mtiiules the sacred 
volume of the Seiks, after which flowers and fruits were placed 
before him, and the nobles and other high personages, all dressed 
10 yellow, were admitted to make their offerings in money. 

The departure of our travellers from Lahore was delayed by an 
entertainment given by his highness, the description of which is 
worthy perusal. Having experienced the most condescending 
proofs of friendship from the Maharaja, and great kindness from 
Messrs. Allard and Court, two French officers in his service, they 
finally quitted Lahore on the forenoon of the 1 Ith of February, and 
alighted that ntght at the ruins of the once splendid mausoleum of 
Juhangeer, across the Havee, putting up in one of the garden 
houses that surround it. The tomb itself had lately been converted 
into a barrack for a brigade of infantry. Their first care was to 
divest themselves of every article of European costume and comfort, 
and to adopt not only the dress of the Afghans, but, what was rather 
more diflkuU, their habits and manners. The close dress, tents, 
beds, boxes, tables, and chairs, were all discarded for the flowing 
robe, s coarse carpet, and a blanket ; and their now diminished 
wardrobe, with the necessary books and instruments, found place 
in the saddle-bags whicli were thrown across the horse's quarters. 

Half way across to the Chenab, they halted at a garden well 
atored with flowers and fruit-trees; of the latter there were about 
twenty-eight different sorts, both European and Asiatic. When 
within about twenty miles of the river, the Himalaya mountains 
burst upon their view, overtopped with snow ; they subtended an 
angle of tif[y-one minutes elevation, and Lieutenant Buines esti- 
mated their distance at 16O miles, and their height at least 16,000 
feet. They reached the Chenab, or Acesines, at Ramnuggur, 
formerly called Russool, before the Mohammedan supremacy was 
overthrown. The country between the Ravee and Chenab is a 
little better cultivated and more fertile than that previously passed, 
ifae soil is sandy, and the wells in its centre are but twenty-tive feet 
dc^, with an average temperature of 70° Fahr. The climate at 

u 2 



I 



n(jo Travf-h throuyh Central Asia. 

this season is cold and bleak, frequently rainy, always cloudy, with 
the wind generally blowing from the north. The sugmr-cane thrivei; 
its juice 18 expressed by two horizontal woodea rollers, acted oo 
by two lesser vertical ones, which are set in motioa by m wheel 
ttuned by a pair of oxen; they produce a coarse sugar called 
*^ goor." £ducation is at a miserably low ebb, the prevailing 
opinioa in the higher as well as the lower classes being that it ia 
useless to a cultivator of the soil. They crossed the Chenab by 
a ferry; its breadth is 300 yards wide, with a depth of nine feet ; its 
banks are low and speedily inundated in the rainy season, when it 

Erobably is, as Arrian describes it, a rapid stream : its velocity, 
owever, did not now exceed one mile and a half an hour ; and it 
is passable by a ford. The temperature was 63° ; lower than the 
Sutlege, the Beas, or the Ravee. They halted at a mud mosque 
on the right bank of the river. The people are much afflicted 
with a disease called ** noozlu/' which is described as a running at 
the nose, wasting the brain and stamina of the body, and ending 
fatally ; there is also much eye disease in the Punjab. 

A journey of forty-tive miles brought them to the Jelum, the 
Hydaspes of the Greeks, which winds its way through an alluvial 
plain at the base of a low rocky range of hills. On this they em- 
barked, and sailed down the stream about five miles. The river 
abounds in crocodiles more than any other of the Punjab streams ; 
it is a smaller stream than the Chenab, though at this season their 
breadth was similar; it is muddy, and rapid, as described by Arrian, 
the velocity being from three to four miles an hour. On disem- 
barkation they crossed a rich and verdant plain to the town of 
Pind Dadun Khan, about 100 miles N.W. of Lahore, where they 
halted. The people are still the same as in the time of Alexander, 
^^ strong built, large limbed, and taller in stature than all the 
rest of the Asiatics." Piud Dadun Khan is the capital of a small 
district, and has a population of 6000 souls ; it consists of three 
small towns close together, about four miles jfrom the banks of the 
river. The houses are made of a framework of cedar, which is 
floated down from the Himalaya ; a tree seen on the banks was 
thirteen feet in diameter. 

The salt-range springs from the roots of the White Mountains 
crosses the Indus at Karabagh (described by Elphinstone), and 
terminates on the right bank of the Hydaspes, about five miles 
from Pind Dadun Khan. It forms the southern boundary of a 
table-land between those two rivers, which rises about 800 feet 
above the plains of the Punjab. The hills attain an actual height 
of 1200 feet from the valley of the Jelum, giving an elevation of 
2000 feet above the sea ; they exceed five miles in breadth. The 
formation is saudstone, occurring in vertical strata ; vegetation is 



Travels through Central Asia. 293 

Ksntjr, and bold and bare precipices rise at once from the plain. 
Hot springs are found iij various places; alum, anlimon)' and sul- 
phur also occur; but a red clay, chietly seen io the valleys, is a 
sure indication of a salt deposit. The mine which Lieutenant 
Burnes esamiued was situated near the oulside of the range, in a 
valley cut by a rivulet ; it opened into the hill at about 200 feet 
from the base, by a Harrow gallery of 360 yards in length, 50 of 
which maybe taken as actual descent; this conducted into an 
irregular-shaped cavern, about 100 feet high, with walls formed of 
the bright and beautiful crystals of the red salt, which is depo- 
sited in regular vertical strata, none exceeding a fout and a half 
in thickness, and each distinctly separated from the other by a. 
deposit of argillaceous earth, about an eighth of an inch thick. 
Some of the salt occurs ia hexagonal crystals ; the whole is tinged 
with red from the lightest to the deepest shade, but when pounded 
it is while. The caverns retain a more equal temperature than 
the external air ; at this season they were at 64°, higher by S0° 
than the atmosphere; but in the hot weather they were described 
as being much cooler. Above a hundred persons, men, women, 
and children, were at work in the mine ; their complexion was 
cadaverous, and appearance miserable, though they do not appear 
to be subject to any particular disease. 

This salt is in high reputation in India on account of its me- 
dical virtues; but it is not pure, and, from a mixture of some 
substance (probably magnesia), is unfit for curing meat. About 
800,000 mauuds of Lahore (one of which is equal to 100 lbs. 
English) is annually extracted, but it is closely monopolized by 
the Punjab government. 

Our travellers marched up the right bank of the Jelum to 
Jelalpoor, for about thirty miles, through a tract of rich land. 
The salt-range runs parallel with the river; many villages are 
perched on the outer hills, remarkable alike for their romantic 
situation and comfort. Jelalpoor has been, by some, considered 
the scene of Alexander's battle widi Porus ; but Lieutenant Burnes 
is rather inclined to identify that with the village of Jelum, 
higher up the river. The high roads from the Indus pass the 
Hydaspes at both places; but the latter is the great road from 
Tartary. At Jelum the river is divided into five or six channels, 
fordabte at all times except during the mousoon. About fifteen 
miles below Jelum, and a thousand yards from the banks of the 
river, near the modern village of Uarapoor, are some extensive 
ruins, called Oodeenuggur, three or four miles in extent ; and on 
the opposite shore is a mound where the village of Moong now 
stands ; our author believes the former to indicate the site of 
NicK, the latter of Bucephalia. Two Sanscrit coins were pro- 
cured at Moong, and some copper ones, with Arabic inscriptions. 




294 Trmda through Central Atta. 

■t Oodeenaggar. Lieutenant Bumes notices the singular coinci- 
dence between the numerica] war-forces of Porns and Runject 
Sing, whom he styles the modern Porus, substituting, however, 
SOO guns for as many war-chariots. They now quitted the 
banks of the Jelum, and entered the country of Potewar, inha- 
bited by a race of people called Gukers, famed for their beauty, 
■nd claiming a Rajpoot origin. Their approach to the Moham- 
nedan countiies became daily evident, from the women being 
veiled, and a change occurring in the costume ; sixty yards of 
cloth were sometimes seen used in a pair of trowsen. 

On the Ist of March they reached the celebrated fort of Rotas, 
considered one of the great bulwarks between Tartary and India ; 
OQ the construction of which twelve years' labour and some 
millions of rupees were wasted. From Rotas, their road lay 
through a mountainous and rugged country of great strength. 
Water is abundant in the ravines, and is found also in wells thirty- 
five feet deep. To the right was seen the spot at which the 
Hydaspes issues from ihe mountain ; it is called Damgully. 
There is no route into ihe valley of Cashmere by this river ; and 
the most frequented one lies by Meerpoor and Poouch, about 
twelve miles to the eastward. On the 6th, the party reached the 
village of Manikyala, where there is a singular " tope," or mound 
of masonry, which has been described by Mr. Elphinstone ; it 
has lately been opened, and some coins and other articles found : 
this mound may be distinguished at the distance of sixteen miles. 
'Manikyala stands on a plain, and Lieutenant Burnes does not 
hesitate to fix upon it as the site of Taxilla. At this village they 
were made sensible that they were leaving Hindostan and its 
customs behind them, by finding a bakery common to the whole 
village. On the following day they arrived at an agreeable town 
called Rawil Pindee, distant twelve miles from the mountains, 
which were covered with anoxv. On the road ihey met a numerous 
body of Afghans, and also Hindoo pilgrims crowding from beyond 
the Indus to the great religious fair of Hurdwar. 

About fifteen miles from Rawit Pindee, they passed the defile 
of Margulla, and descried the mountains beyond the Indus. This 
pass is narrow, over low hills, and paved with blocks of stone for 
150 yards : the defiles continue for about a mile, when a bridge, 
over a rivulet, conducts to the next caravanserai ;■ and at about 
twenty miles from Kawil Pindee, the party slopped at Osman, 
situated on a plain, at the mouth of the valley up which stands 
the fort of Khunpoor. About a mile beyond Oaman, near the 
ruined village of BeUir, is a " tope" or mound, similar to that of 
Manikyala, hut not of such magnitude. These " topes" lieute- 
nant Bumes believes to be the tombs of a race of princes who 
once reigned in Upper India, either the Bactriao kings or Aeir 



Travels through Central Asia. 294 

Indo-Scythic successors. Seven miles beyond Osman, down the 
valley, is the-garden orHousn Abdall, lying between two bare 
and lofly bills j passing wliicli, the view opens upon llic valley of 
Drumlour, tliat leads to Cashmere ; and the range of hills at Pnk- 
lee, covered witb snow, was tmced in chain with more lofty 
mountains beyond it. The fertile plain of Chuch and Huzara also 
lay before them. 

Our travellers came in sight of the Indus at a distance of fifteea' 
miles, whence it could be traced from ib exit tbrongh the lower 
bills to the fort of Altok. They encamped at Huzroo, a mart 
between Peshawur and Lahore. The people were now quite 
clianged; they were Afghans, and spoke Puoshloo. On their 
march to the river, they passed over a spacious plain, well culti- 
vated, and covered with rounded stones — an unerring proof of the 
agency of water. The spot ut which they forded the Indus was 
about live miles above Attok, where the stream was divided into 
three branches, in the two first of which it gushed with amazing 
violence; and having, with great difiiculty and risk, accomplished 
tbia uudcrtuking, they proceeded to Atlok, which stands on a 
black, slaty ridge, at the verge of the Indus. It is a place of no 
Rlrength, and has a population of about 2000 souls. The gar- 
rison being in a state of mutiny, they were detained outside the 
town for two days, when they weje ferried across the grand 
boundary of India on the 17th of March. The current exceeded 
six miles an hour; the water was azure blue ; and uhout 200 yards 
above Attok, before the ludus is joined by the Cabool stream, it 
gushes over a rapid with amazing fury : a boat cannot live in this 
tempestuous torrent ; but after the Cabool river has joined it, the 
Indus passes on in a tranquil stream, about 2(jO yards wide, and 
35 fathoms deep, under the walls of Altok. At the confluence, 
an ignis fatuus is visible every evening. Tliey found the fisher- 
men on the Indus and Cabool river washing the sand for gold: 
some of the smaller streams, however, such as the Swan and 
iiurroo, yield more gold than the Indus. 

The troops of Runjeet Sing escorted the parly to their frontier, 
which is three miles beyond the induB, where they met the 
Afghans, and advanced with them to Acora. Hence they traversed 
a beautiful plain, covered with thyme and violets, to the city of 
Peahawur, where thej were received with the greatest kindness 
and attention by the chief Sooltan Mohammed Khan. Lieutenant 
Bumes considers the town of Peshawur so well described by Mr. 
£lphin!itone, and all tlie ground over which he went, as to 
require no further addition on his part; his details, in this part 
of Afghanistan, aie, therefore, confined more to incidents of a 
personal nature, The citadel of Bala Hissar, where the miision of 



I 




Sg6 TVsMb thnmgh Cmtnd Aiia. 

1809 had be^n so gorgeouiljf received, wu now a heap of niios, 
having been burnt by the Seiks in one of their expeditions to this 
country. About five miles from the town, on the Cabool road, 
are the ruins of a " tope," similar to those of Manik^ntla and 
Belur ; and it is said that there are eight or ten more of these 
towers towards the country of the Kaffirs. 

The month which elapsed after iheir arrival at Peshawur so 
far increased the temperature, that they had no longer to fear 
the snows of Cabool and Hindoo Koosh; the thermometer had 
nsen from 60° at mid-day, to 87° ; and, after much procrastina- 
tion on the part of the chief, the 19th of April was fixed for their 
departure. On that day they took leave of their kind friends, the 
chief placing tbem under the protection of one of his own officers, 
and not only giving them letters to several persons specifically, 
but also six blank sheets, bearing his seal, which our travellers 
were to fill up to any person who, they thought, could serve 
them. There are five ditterent roads to Cabool, but they chose 
that which leads by the river, the pass of Khyber being unsafe, 
from the lawless habits of the people ; and crossed the beautiful 
plain of Peshawur to Muchnee. Above this place they passed 
the Cabool river on a raft of inflated skins ; the river is only 250 
yards wide, but runs with amazing rapidity. Muchnee is a 
straggling village at the gorge of the valley, where the Cabool 
river enters the plain \ and below that place it divides into three 
branches, in its course towards the Indus. Rafts are generally 
used on this river, though there are a few boats, in which the 
Mohammedan pilgrims embark, and pass down to the sea ; but 
merchandise is never sent by this route. On the S.Srd, they com- 
menced iheir journey, and, after a fatiguing march over mountain- 
passes, found themselves again on the Cabool river, which was lo 
be crossed a second time. Its breadth did not exceed 1^ yards, 
but it rushed on with great rapidity, and the precipices on its 
bank rose to the height of about 2000 feet. The passage was 
made on rufts of inHaled skins, and was tedious and difficult, on 
account of the eddies. On the following morning they reached 
Duka by a rocky road, and pushed on in the afternoon to Huzar- 
now, a journey of upwards of twenty miles. The view from the 
top of a mountain-pass, before descending into the valley of tbe 
Cabool river, was very magnificent. They could see the town of 
Julalabad, forty miles distant, and the river winding its way 
through the plain, and dividing it into innumerable islands. The 
Sufued Koh, or white mountain, reared its crest on one side, and, 
on the other, the toweriog hill of Noorgill, or Kooner, covered 
with perpetual snow, on which the Afghans believe the ark of 
Noah to have rested after the deluge. HoX. far from this place 



L 



Travels through Central Aula. 297 

is an isolated rock, called ^iaogee, in Bajour, which Lieutenant 
Burnes considers to answer the description of Arriaii'a celebrated 
rock, of Aorniia. 

The route from Huzarnow lo Julalabad— which city they 
reached on the moruing of the SOlh — lay tliroiigh a wide, stony 
waste, a part of which is known by ihe name of Butlecole, and 
famed for a pestilential wind, or simoom, which is generally fatal. 
la a hill north of the Cabool river and the village of BussonI are 
some extensive excavations in the rock, hewn out in groups, each 
having a separate entrance about the size of a common doorway ; 
they are ascribed to the days of the KaRirs, or in6dels. Near 
Julalabad are seven round towers, diflfering, however, front the 
'* topes" before mentioned. They are said lo be ancient, and 
large copper coins are found near them. Between Jiilalabud and 
the mountains, the natives point out the tomb of Lamech, the 
father of Noah, 

Julalabad is a small town, exceedingly filthy, with a bazaar of 
fifty shops, iind a population of about SOOO people ; but in the 
cold seafloti the people tiock to it from the surrounding villages. 
The Cabool river passes about a quarter of a mile north of it, 
and is 1^0 yards wide, but not fordable. There are mountains 
of snow to the north and south, running parallel with each other ; 
the southern is called biufued Koh, but more frequently Kajgul. 
It decreases in size as it runs eastward, and loses its snow before 
reaching Duka; in the higher parts the snow never melts, giving 
an elevation of about 15,000 feet. To ihe north-west, the lofty 
peaks of the Hindoo Koosh begin to show themselves. The tra- 
vellers now left the river of Caboul, and passed up a valley to Hala- 
bagh ; here grow famous pomegranates without seed, which are 
exported to India. At Gundamuk, the next place, they reached 
the boundary of the hot and cold countries, and, though only 
twenty-tive miles from Julalabad, wheal, which was there being 
cut, was here only three inches above the ground. The moun- 
tains ten miles distant were covered with foreats of pine, which 
commenced about IIXX) feet below the limit of snow. At three 
miles from Gundamuk, ihey passed the garden of Neemla, and 
continued their march to .lugdukik, and passed the Soorkh road, 
or red river, where a variety of small streams pour the melted 
snow of the Sufueh Koh into that rivulet: their waters are all 
reddish; hence the name. The country is barren and mise- 
rable, and Jugduluk is a wretched place, with a few caves for a 
village. Our travellers could distinguish that a road had once 
been made, also ihe remains of the post-houses which had been 
constructed every five or six miles, by the Mogul emperors ; these 
may even be traced across the mountains to Balkh, After pass- 
ing the Sooikh road, ibey reached Ispahan, a small village, and, 



I 




hj MidiHght of Ibe SOih, arrifcd at the |mm of I^te-ba^ firon 
tk topofwUcfa tbecitjirf' Cobool fint b t com u noble, dntaBt 
tveot^-fiTC mile*. The pan i> about six miks long, aad Ac nmA 
niM over loose FOund klooca. Ridng earij, tbe^ proaecvlal ibeir 
joorae; lo Cabool, whidi the; readbed in the afteivooa, tbe ap- 
praadi to it being any ibing but imposing. On ifaeir road, thcj 
pauMd tbe village of Boothak, wbeie Mabmood of Gfaimi ia said 
to bave interred tbe licb Hindoo idol fnMn tbe ftunous Somnat. 

Cabool is a ikmsj and bustling city ; tbe great bazaar, or " Cbou- 
drat," is an elegant arcade neait; six bundred feet long, and ^tout 
ibirty broad, divided into four equal parts. There are few socb 
baiaan in tbe East, sod one wooden at tbe silks, cloths, and 
goods arrayed under its piazzas ; acd tbe quantity of dried Auits, 
grapes, pears, apples, quinces and meloos. In the poulterers' 
shops are snipes, ducks, partridges, plover,, and other game; 
Each trade has its separate bazaar : there are booksellers and 
Stationers ; much of the paper is Russian, and of a blue colour. A 
white jelly sitaiDed from snow called " Falodeh," and blanched 
ibubarb called " Rhuwash," are great favourites with the people, 
^ew cook at home, and Cabool u famous for its kabobs or cooked 
meats. There are do ubeeled carriages in the town; the streets 
are not very narrow, and are intersected with small covered aque- 
ducts of clean water; they are kept in good order. The bouses 
■re built of sun-dried bricks and wood, few of them more than 
two stories high ; tbe population is 60,000 souls. Tbe Cabool 
river vins through the city, and is reported to have inundated it 
three different times. During rain there is not a dirtier place than 
Cabool. According to tbe natives, the city is 6000 years old ; 
it was once, wilh Ghiznt, tributary to Bameean, but is now the 
capital over both ; it is said to have been once named i^bool, 
bence the name of Zabooliittan. It is a popular belief that when 
the devil was cast out of heaven, he fell in Cabool. There are 
not exactly traditions uf Alexander here ; but both Herat and 
Lahore are said to have been founded by slaves of that conqueror, 
called Heri (the old name of Herat), and Lahore. No coins 
were procured except a Cufic coin of Bokhara, 843 years old, 
and Lieutenant Burnes heard of one at the mint of the size 
and shape of a sparrow's egg : triangular and square coins are 
common ; the latter belonging ^o the age of Akbar. A colony of 
Armenians, consisting of some hundreds, were introduced into 
Cabool by Nadir and Ahmed Shah from Joolfa and Meshid in 
Persia, of whom only twenty-one persons are now remaining; and 
there are but three Jewish families out of one hundred which it 
could boast last year. 

Since their departure, our travellers had so far kept pace wiUi 
the seasons in tlie various climates, as to be travelling in « per- 



Traveh tkrouijh Central Asia. 299 

Jielual spring, Cabool is GOOO feet above the sea, and its 
gardens, which are all beautiful, were now in full blossom, and 
afforded a great variety uf iniils and flowers. The people are 
passionately fond of sauntering about them. The climate of 
Cabool is genial. At noon the sun is hotter than iu England, 
but the evenings and nights are cool ; there is no regular rainy 
season. The snow lasts for live months in the winter, and the 
prevailing winds are from the north. Cabool is celebrated for 
its fruits, and they make a wine not unlike Madeira. The 
Bala Hissar, or citadel, is situated at the eastern extremity of the 
rocky hills which enclose the city to the south and west ; it com- 
mands the city, but is not strong. It was built by different princes 
of the house of Timour from Baber downwards ; the palace stands 
in it. Near it the Persians or Kuzzilbashes reside; they are 
Toorks, principally of the tribe of Juviansheer, who were fixed in 
this country by Nadir Shah. During their stay, our travellers 
witnessed the festival of " Eed," kept in commemoration of Abra- 
ham's intention to sacrifice his son Isaac, with every demonstration 
of respect. The tomb of Timour Shah, which stands outside 
the town, is a brick building of itn octangular shape, fifty*feet 
high, about forty feet square inside, and of an architecture re- 
aembling that of Delhi. The tomb of 13aber also stands in the 
.centre of a garden about a mile from the city ; the grave is marked 
by two erect slabs of while marble, in front of which is a small 
but chaste moacjue of marble also : near it are interred many of his 
wives and children. 

The Afghans call themselves " Beni Israeel," children of Israel, 
yet consider the term '' Yahoodee," Jew, to he one of reproach. 
They say they were transplanted by Nebuchadnezzar after the 
overthrow of the Temple, to Ghore, a town near Uameean, and 
ihat they lived as Jews till the first century, when Khaleed con- 
verted them to Mohammedauisui ; they have all the appearance of 
Jews, and have the Hebrew custom of the younger brother marry- 
ing the widow of the elder. From all he could learn. Lieute- 
nant Bumes is of opinion that ihey are of Jewish descent ; but in 
Ihis there is probably a mistake. 

Having spent nearly three weeks at Cabool, preparations were 
made for departure; but as no caravan was ready, they hired a 
Cafila-bashee, or conductor of the great caravan. A steward of 
one of the principal noblemen, who carried on great commercial 
intercourse with Bokhara and Hussia. was appointed to accom- 
pany them ; and they were furnished witli letters from the chief 
and various other individuals from whom they had experienced 
great kindness. During their stay, the party had become ac- 
quainted with some of tlie Hindoo or Shikarpuoree merchants, in 
whose bands is all the trade of Central Asia, and who have bouses 



I 



h 



300 Travels throutjh Central Asia. I 

of agency from Astracan and Meshed to Calcutta; and through 
them it became an easy matter to adjust iheir money -trans actions, 
giving gold and a bill on Bokhara on the letter of credit with 
which Lieutenant Bunies was furnished by the Indian Govern- 
ment. 

Thus prepared, they left Cabool on the ISth of May (Friday), 
after noontide prayers, according to the usual custom, and halted 
at nightat a small village called Killa-i-K^e. Prudence dictated 
their proceeding very quietly in this part of their journey ; they 
assumed the title of " Meerza," or secretary, a common appellation 
in these countries, and committed themselves to the charge of the 
conductor, like a bale of goods. They ieft the road which leads 
to Candahnr, and followed the valley of the Cubool river, to its 
source at Sirchnshma; the first halting-place was called JulraJz 
from its running brooks, and these it is that make the country 
enchanting, in spite of its bleak rocks. The valley was not above 
a mile in breadth, and most industriously cultivated ; the hills on 
each side were covered with snow. At Sirchushma are two natural 
pools converted into fish-preserves, and said to be sacred lo All, 
therefore they are never molested. Before entering the valley of 
the river, they left the famous Ghizni to the south ; it is only sixty 
miles from Cabool. It is now a place of small note, but contains 
the tomb of Mahmood its founder, which has sandal-wood gates, 
originally from Somuat in ]ndia. 

They wound up the valley till they reached a level tract on the 
mountains, the pass of Oonna, the ascent to which is guarded by 
three forts ; they encountered the snow previous to reaching the 
summit, which is about 1 1,000 feet high, and crossing the pass, 
halted at a small village in the cold country of the Uuzaras, who 
were only now ploughing and sowing. Continuing along the base 
of Kohi Baba, a remarkable ridge with three peaks on it rising to 
the height of about 1»,000 feet, covered witli snow, they reached, 
on theeveningof the ^ 1st, the bottom of the passof Hajeeguk, and 
passed the night with a Huzara family near a Hitie fort. These 
people said that the snow prevented them from stirring out for sis 
months in the year, and that the barley sown in June was reaped 
in September. Money was of no value, every thing was purchased 
by barter. The Huzaras differ from the Afghan tribes, more 
resembling Jn physiognomy the Chinese ; they are a simple- 
hearted people, of Tartar descent. Though living some of them 
at 10,000 feet elevation, they are quite free from goitre. From 
this resting-place the party commenced the ascent of the pass of 
Hajeeguk, about 12,4(X) feet above the sea ; it was tlie 22nd of 
May, but the suow bore their horses, and the thermometer fell to 
four degrees below the freezing point. Beyond this they endea- 
voured to ascend to the pass of Kaloo, atill 1000 feet higher, but 



Travels through Cenlral Asia. 301 

their progress was arrested by the anow, and they doubled it by 
p&ssing round its slioulder, taking the side of a valley, watered by 
K tributary to the Oxus, which led to Bameean. The maun- 
Iain-scenery with its frightful precipices was truly grand, and it 
was impossible to continue their route on horseback: the path 
appeared formerly to hove been fortilied, and they passed rem- 
nants of post-houses of the Mogul empire. 

Bameean is celebrated for its colossal idols, and innumerable 
excavations, which are to be seen iu all parts of the valley for 
about eight miles, and still form the residence of the greater part 
of the population; a detached hill in the middle of the valley is 
(juile honcy-conibcd with them, and brings to recollection the 
Troglodiles of Alexander's historianti. It is called the city of 
Ghoolghoola, and the cuves are said to be the work of a king 
named Julal : they are dug on both sides, but the greater number 
lie on the northern side, where also are carved in relievo, on the 
face of the hills, two colossal idols. They consist of two ligures, 
male and female, the one named Silsal, the other Shahmama, about 
two hundred yards apart. The mule, wliicli is the larger of the 
two, ia about 120 feet high, occupying a front of nearly 70 feet, and 
extends about the same. distance into the hill. The tigure is covered 
with a mantle which hangs all over it, and has been formed of a 
kind of plaster; the niches have also been at one lime plastered 
aud ornamented with painting of human figures; tlie execution is 
indifferent, but the colours are still vivid. Near the bottom are 
apertures through which a road winds up the inside of the bill 
to the top of the figures. Rings, corns, &c., are found by 
digging; the latter generally bear Cufic inscriptions, and are of a 
later date than Mahomnied. Bameean is subject to Cabuol, and 
appears to be a place of high autiquity, perhaps the city which 
Alexander founded at the base of Paropamisus, before entering 
Bactria. The country from Cabool to Balkh is still called 
"Bakhtur Zumeen," or Bakhtnr country. The caves and idols 
are described in the history of Timourlane. 

After a day's delay at Bameean the party set out for Syghan, 
distant 3U miles; half-way they crossed the pass of Akiobal, where 
they left the dominions of modern Cuboul and entered Toorkis- 
lan, called Tartary by Europeans. They now looked upon the 
range of great snowy mountains behind them; Kohi Baba is the 
principal continuation of the Hindoo Koosh. From Syghan they 
crossed the pass of Dundan Shikun, or the Toothbreaker, so 
called from its steepness and ditliculty ; and then descended into 
B narrow valley, that extended some miles beyond the village of 
Kamurd. The rocks rose on either side to the height of 3000 
feet, frequently precipitous, nor was the dell anywhere more than 
300 feet wide ; no stars could be seen, nor any observations taken. 



I 



I 



904 Travels fkroti/fh Central Asia. 

On tbe SGlh of May tbcy crossed the last pass of the Iitdiul 
Caucasus — the Kara KooltuI, or Black Pass — bat had ^1 » 
jouniey of ninety-five mile* before clearing the mountains. At 
ihe village of Dooab ihey descended into tiie bed of tlie riw 
of Khooloven, and followed it to that place, among terrific pitxi* 
pices, where they met with a band of lobbers, Tartar Huzaras, 
who however did not attack them, lliey continued their descent, 
by Khoorrum and Sarbagb, to Heibuk, which is but a tnudi 
within the mountains; near it is a defile, called Dura i SUndifc 
or Valley of the Dungeon, so narrow, with adjoining prvcipioet 
so high, that the sun is excluded from some parts of it at mid-da;, 
A poisonous plant is found here, which is fatal to either mule ur 
horse. Beyond this they began graduolly to exchange the barren 
rocks for more hospitable lauds. Herds of deer might be ttta 
bounding on the rocks, and population became more nunieruui. 
Heibuk is a thriving village, with a castle of sun-dried brick built 
on a commanding hillock ; the elevation of the tillage ii about 
4000 feet; its soil is rich, and the gardens exhibited the uioft 
luxuriant verdure : the fig-tree is found liere. The houses bire 
domes instead of terraces, with a hole in the roof for n chimney; 
BO tltat the village has the appearance of a cluster of large brown 
bee-hives. They adopt tliis style of buildin;; as wood is scarce. 
The people wear conical scul leaps instead of turbans, and long 
brown boots; the ladies choose the brightest colours fur their 
dress, are nut scrupulous about b^ing veiled, and are not ungainly 
in appearance. 

On the 50th of May they made their last march among llie 
irountains, and debouched into the plains of Tartary, at Khooloom 
or Tash Khoorghan, the country to the north sloping down lo.tbe 
Onus. The last hills, about two miles from the town, rise at 
once in an abrupt and imposing manner, the road passing tlirough 
a detile that might easily be defended. Khooloom contains about 
10,000 inhabitants, and is the frontier-town of the chief of Koon- 
dooz, Morad Beg. who has reduced all the countries north of 
Hindoo Koosh under his yoke. Their intention was to have pro- 
ceeded on the following day to Baikh, but they were desired' l» 
await the return of a messenger, who had been despatched to llM 
chief at Koondooz, by whom they received a summons to nont' 
thither. Lieutenant Burnes now resolved on personating tbe 
character of an Armenian, trusting his safety to the appearance of 
abject poverty; and set foiih with most of his party, leaving, how- 
ever. Dr. Gerard and his tiinduo servants at Khooloom. Besidei 
the conductor, tbe slewurd, and the Hindoo c us to mho use- officer 
of Khooloom, whom Lieutenant Bnrncs had persuaded to accoin- 

1" (hem, the caravan consisted of eiglit or ten lea- merchants, 
iag disposed of their property, were returning to Budukh- 



Travels through Central Asia. SOS 

■ban and Yarkund. Slarting in tlie evening, they halted at the 
village of Ungariik, twelve miles from Khoolooni, to feed their 
horses ; and thea continued travelling till within an hour of dawn, 
by a dreary road, over two low posses, among; hills not enlivened 
by a single tree, nor blessed willi a drop of I'resh water, for forty- 
five miles. About eleven in the forenoon, they reached the first 
fields, twelve miles from Koondooz, where they arrived at night- 
fall, having performed a journey of more than seventy miles. On 
the road, Lieutenant Biirnes had an opportunity of entering into 
conventation willi the Hindoo in his native tongue, which was not 
understood by the rest of the party, and discovered that this 
official was open to a bribe, and was willing to lend his weight to 
the following story, which was also made known to the conductor 
and steward : — that Lieutenant Burnes was an Armenian from 
LtUcktiow, a watchmaker, who, having learnt at Cabool of the 
existence of some relatives at Bokhara, was journeying thither; 
and that Dr. <Jerard was a relative of his, but left at Khoolooni 
from ill health. All the 4lh they remained at Koondooz, where 
Lieutenant IJunies had an opportunity of seeing something of the 
people, who are passionately fond of tea, and — like the Turks 
with their coffee —nothing is done without it; the leaves of the 
pot are afterwards divided among the party, and chewed like 
tobacco. Most of tlie visiters were Tajik merchants, natives of 
Budukshan, trading to China, from whom were gathered some 
particulars regarding the reputed descendants of Alexander tha 
Great, which are yet said to exist in this neighbourhood and the 
valley of the Osus. 

Early on ilie morning of the 5th they started for their iuterview 
with Morad Beg, whom they found at the village of Khaun-abad, 
about tifteen miles distant, and situated on the brow of the hills 
above the fens of Koondooz, and guarded by the fortified dwelling 
of the chief, iu which were about live hundred cavalry, armed 
with long knives in their girdles, some of which were richly 
mounted with gold. The interview was critical, but on the posi- 
tive assurance by the Hindoo officer, that the travellers were poor 
Armenians, an order was mude out for their sufe-conduct. From 
the torn and threadbare garb of Lieutenant Burnes, he was not 
even thought worthy of a question ; and in the afternoon returned 
to Koondooz. The town lies in a valley, surrounded by hills on 
nil sides, except the north, where the O.xus flows at the distance of 
forty miles; it is watered by two rivers, which join north of the 
town. The greater part of the valley is so marshy that the roads are 
constructed on piles, and run through the rankest weeds ; yet wheat 
snd bailev are produced, as also rice. 'I'he heat is intolerable, 
and the climate vi^ry unlicallhy; yet the snow ties for three mouths 
in the year. At one time KuondooK has been a large town, but 



I 




9M Trmelt through Central Aiia. 

BOW its population does not exceed 1500 souls. The mountains 
of Hindoo Koosh lie in sight, south of the (own, covered with 
snow ; the neighbouring bills are low ridges, covered with grass 
and Qovien, but destitute of trees. Fartlier up the valley, the 
cliniBte becomes more genial and healthy. The chief. Morad 
Beg, is an Usbek of the Kudghun tribe, lately risen to power; 
he possesses all the valley of the Oxus, and but recently held sove- 
reignty over Balkh. After a fatiguing march of twenty hours 
constantly in the saddle, Lieutenant Burnes again joitted Dr. 
Gerard, at Khooloom, to the heartfelt joy of both ; and not wish- 
ing to incur any more risks, they prepared to set out the following 
morning, die 8th of May, and in the afternoon reached Muzar, 
thirty miles distant from Khooloom. The country between these 
places is barren and dreary, and the road leads over a low pass, 
called Abdoo; on the route they obser^'ed a magnificent mirage, 
a snaky line of vapour as large as the Oxus itself, and which had 
ail the appearance of that river. 

Muzar contains about live hundred houses, and is within the 
limits of the canal of Balkh ; it can muster about 1000 horse, and 
is independent of that city and Khooloom. Muzar means a 
tomb; and this place was built about three hundred and fifty 
years ago, and dedicated to Ali. At this town, Mr. Trebeck, 
the last of Moorcroft's unfortunate party, expired ; he is buried 
outside (he town. On the morning of the 9th of June they 
entered tlie ancient city of Balkh, where they remained three days, 
to examine ihe ruins of this once proud city. 

The remains extend fur a circuit of about twenty miles, but pre- 
sent no symptoms of magnificence ; they consist of fallen mosques 
and decayed tombs, built of sun-dried bricks, none of the ruins 
being of sn age prior to Mahommedanism. It is still called, by 
the Asiatics, " Mother of Cities," and is said to have been built 
by Kyauioors, the founder of the Persian monarchy. It con- 
tinued the rcsidt^nce of the Archi-niagus till the followers of 
Zoroaster were overthrown by the inroads of the Caliphs. Its 
inhabitants were butchered in cold blood by Jenghis Khan; and 
under the hou.se of Timour it became a province of the Mogul 
empire. It formed the government of Aurungzebe in his youth, . 
and was at last iuvuded by (he great Nadir. Under the Dooranee 
monarchy it fell into [he hands of the Afghans; and within the 
last eight years has been seized by the king of Bokhara. Its pre- 
sent popniation does not exceed 2000 souls, chiefly natives of 
Cabool ; also a few Arabs. The city appears to have enclosed 
a number of gardens; there are the ruins of three large colleges 
of handsome structure. A mud wall surrounds the town, which 
must be of a late age, since it excludes the ruins, on every side, 
for about two miles. The citadel, or ark, on the northern side> has 



Travels through Central Asia. 305 

been more solidly constructed, jei is a place of no Btrength : in 
it is a stone of white marble, pointed out as the ihrune of Kai 
Kboos, or Cyrus. Balkli stands on a plain, ISOO feet above the 
sea, about six miles from the hills ; the city itself has become a 
perfect mine of bricks for the surrounding country ; they are of 
an oblong shape, rather square. The fruit of Baikh is most 
luscious, particularly the apricots. Snow is brought from the 
mountains, about twenty miles from the southward, and sold for 
a trifle. The climate is insalubrious, but not disagreeable ; ita 
unhealthiness is ascribed to the water, which is so mixed up with 
earth and clay as to look like a puddle after rain; the soil is like 
pipe-clay, and very rich ; when wet it is slimyj the crops are good, 
and the wheat grows as high as in England. The water has been 
distributed by aijueducls from a river; these frequently overflow 
and leave marshes, but the country itself is not naturally marshy, 
as it slopes gently towards the Oxus. Lieutenant Bnrnes obtained 
some copper coins, Persian, Cutic, and Arabic ; and examined a 
whole senes of those of the emperors of Hiadoslan, The tombs 
of Moorcroft and Gulhrie are outside the town. 

On the 12th of June, the caravan assembled outside the town, 
and at midnight our travellers left Balkh. on camels, bearing pan- 
niers, which held one person on each side, when a march of thirty 
miles brought them to the limits of the waters of Balkh. Lieu- 
tenant Burnes observes, that the language of the most graphic 
writer could not delineate this country with greater ejiactness than 
Qiiintus Curtius has done. On the 14lh, they entered the desert, 
and travelled all night towards the O.xus. They left the high 
road, from fear of robbers, and journeyed westward, halting at 
daylight near a settlement of Toorkmuns, consisting of a few 
round huts. The mountains of Hindoo Koosh had entirely dis- 
appeared below the horizon, and the wide plain, like an ocean of 
sand, surrounded them on all sides. At sunset they saddled, and 
after a journey of fifteen hours (thirty miles), found themselves 
on the banks of the Oxus, near the smalt village of Khoju Salu. 
The river was upwards of 800 yards wide, and 20 feet deep ; its 
waters were loaded with clay, and the current ran at the rate of 
about three miles and a half an hour. It is called Jihoon and 
Amoo by the natives. They crossed it in the following singular 
manner ; it pair of horses was yoked to each boat, no oar was used 
to assist them, only a rude round pole to prevent the boat wheel- 
ing in the current; they sometimes use four horses. Having 
passed the river, they commenced their journey towards Bokhara, 
and halted at Shorkudduk ; they next reached Kir Kooduk, the 
stages being about twenty-hve miles, travelling chiefly duriug the 
night, the thermometer, which stood at )03° in the day, then fall- 
ing to 60°. The nest march, to a place called Kirkinjuk, brought 

■VOL. IV. X 




306 TrmeU tiirough Central Asia. 

them to a settlement of Toorlununs, and the country changed, 
from hillocks to mounds of bare sand. At sunset of the 20tb, u 
they approached the town of Kurshee, they descried to the east- 
ward a stupendous range of mountains, covered with snow; the 
distance was estimated at 150 miles, and their elevation &r ex- 
ceeded that assigned to any range oorth of Hindoo Koosh. The; 
could distinguish them faintly at daylight next rooming, when they 
came to the oasis of Kurshee, but never saw them again. This 
spot was a cheering sight after having marched irom the Oxus 
(eighty-five miles) without seeing a tree. Here Lieutenant 
Burnes, Dr. Gerard, and several of the party, were attacked with 
fever, supposed to have been caught at Ballih or on the banks of 
the Oxus, and which prolonged their stay at Kurshee three or 
four days : in the mean time, however, they sent forward a letter 
to the minister of Bokiiara, to announce their approach, to which 
a message of welcome was returned. 

Kursliee is a straggling town, about a mile long, with a consi- 
derable bazar, and about 10,000 inhabitants ; the houses are flat- 
roofed, and mean. A mud fort, surrounded by a wet ditch, forms 
a respectable defence on the south-west side of the town. A river, 
rising at Shuhnr Subz, fifty miles distant, passes north of the 
town, and its banks are adorned with gardens groaning with fruit; 
beyond the hanks, however, everything is barren and sterile. 
Kurshee is (he largest place in the kingdom of Bokhara, next to 
the capital ; its oasis is twenty-two miles broad. From Kurshee 
they marched to Karsan, a thriving village, sixteen miles distant, 
at tlie extremity of the oasis. The second stage brought them to 
Kuronl-tnppa, where there is a caravanserai, built by Abdoolla, 
king of Bokhara, iti ihe fifteenth century ; and they passed three 
large reservoirs, built by this philanthropic prince, llieir next 
stage brought them, early on the morning of the 27th of June, to 
the great eastern capital of Bokhara. 

Bokhara is a very ancient city, tradition assigning its foundatioa 
to Alexander the Great j and the nature of the country around 
makes it probable that it was occupied, more or less permanently, 
even before his time. The circumference of the present city ex- 
ceeds eight miles, and its population is about 150,000 souls. Iti 
shape is triangular ; and it is surrounded by a wall of earth twenty 
feet high, and pierced by twelve gates. Few great buildings are 
seen from its exterior, but when the traveller passes the gates he 
winds his way among lofty and arched bazaars of brick, and sees 
each trade in its separate quarter of the cily. Ii!veIy^vhe^e, also, 
he meets with ponderous and massy buildings, colleges, mosques, 
and lofly minarets. About twenty caravansaries contain the mer- 
chants of different nations ; and about oue hundred ponds and 
fountains, constructed of squared stone, supply, when themselves 




TVoveb thnm^ CetOral A»ia. 307 

aupplied, the population with water ; but the citjr ia sit miles 
' rrom the river, and is frequently much distressed for want of good 
water. When the tmvellen were here, the canals bad been dry 
for sixty days. 

The wisdom and excellence of tbe government at present esta- 
blished at Bokhara seem to promise to make it also a place of 
yet growing importance. We cannot enter here into particutan 
on this head : but the mixture of seventy and iudulgeuce ; strict 
Mohammedanism in his own peison, with toleration for the opi- 
nions of all others ; total ignorance respecting Europeans, with a 
sufficient perception of their superiority to give a strong desire to 
see them in his bazaars ; — altogether constitute the Koosh Begeei 
as be is called, or Lmd of all ^e Begs, a very remarkable person^ 
He is not sovereign of Bokhara, but prime minister to the Sool- 
taun, who bears the title of Commander of the Faithful, but 
appears to interfere little with the government. The travellers 
saw him, but were not presented to him ; with the Koosh Begee 
they had many interviews, and received much kindness from him. 

Tbe ancient and famous city of Samarkand is ISO miles from 
Bokhara ; and the travellers were within two marches of it when 
at Kurshee, but it was impossible for them to visit it. It has 
declined to tbe rank of only a provincial town of eight or ten 
thousand inhabiUnts, and gardens now occupy the place of its 
streets and mosques : but it is still regarded with great veneration 
by the people. Aji obelisk, 150 feet high, at Bokhara, is said to 
be raised to the level of its site. Three of its colleges are said 
to be still perfect: one of them that which formed the observatory 
of the celebrated Ulug Beg. in Bokhara there are no fewer 
than S6t> colleges ; of which a third contain seventy or eighty 
students, the others are smaller ; they are all well endowed, and 
fixed allowances are given both to the professors and students. 
Unfortunately, however, they are exclusively devoted to the study 
of theology, and are ignorant even of tbe historical annals of their 
own country. 

Bokhara, among other branches of trade, has an extensive slave- 
market; the Uzbecks managing all their affairs by means of 
slaves, who are chiefly brought from Persia, as we have already 
noticed in this article, by the Toorkmuns : but Russians and 
Chinese are also to be found among them. 

Our travellers remained in Bokhara about a month ; but on 
the Slst of July they left the city, having been placed, by the 
Koosh Begee, under the special care of the conductor of a caravan 
bound to Meshed, and bivouacked, for the first night, in a field 
about half a mile from the gates. Three short marches brought 
them to the home of the cafila-bashee or, conductor of the ca. 
ravao, a siqall village of twenty houses, called Murabad, forty 

X 2 




SOS TVovel* through Central Atia. 

miJo from Bokhara, and in die district of Karakool ; -when 
thej learnt that the merchants, having taken alarm at the pro- 
ceedings of the Khan of Khira, had all declined to advance. 
The;, however, resolved on sending a messenger to the Khan, 
desiiing to know what levies be demanded, and what they had lo 
expect: the document was dispatched by a Toorkmun, who pro- 
mised to bring an answer on the eighth da; ; and the principal 
merchants of the caravan returned to Bokhara, while our travel- 
lers remained at Meerabad. Four or five miles from the city, 
they entered on a tract of country which was at once the extreme of 
richness and desolation ; to the right the land was irrigated by the 
aqueducts of the Kohik, and lo the left the dust and sand blew 
over a region of dreary solitude. After travelling twenty miles to 
the W. S. W., they found themselves on the banks of the river of 
Samarcand, which did not exceed the breadth of fifty yards, and 
was not fordable. It had much the appearance of a canal; and 
the stripe of cultivated land on each side did not exceed a mile 
in breadth, for the desert pressed closely on the river. The num- 
ber of inhabited places was yet great, and each settlement was 
surrounded by a wall of sun-dried brick, as in Cabool, but the 
houses are neither so neat nor so strong. Tlie direct course which 
they were pursuing to the Oxus led them away from the Kohik, 
but after crossing a belt of sand-hilb, about three miles wide, 
they again descended on that river. Its bed was entirely dry, its 
scanty waters being dammed at Karakool ; it does not flow into 
the Oxus, but forms rather an extensive lake, called " Dengir" 
by the Uzbeks. In the neighbourhood of Meerabad, our travel- 
lers fell in with the ruins of Bykund, said to be one of the most 
ancient cities of Toorkistan: it lies about twenty miles from 
Bokhara, and appears to have been once watered by an extensive 
aqueduct, the remains of which may still be traced. It is now 
quite deserted, but the walls of some of its buildings remain. 

At midnight of the 10th of August, the messenger returned 
from the Orgunje camp, and brought the necessary passport on a 
dirty scrap of paper, with which he was obliged to proceed to 
Bokhara, to the merchants who had returned thither. The 
caravan soon re-assembled, and on the morning of the I6tb of 
August, about eighty camels appeared, to prosecute the journey 
to the Oxus, all laden with the precious lambs' skins of Kara- 
kool. At mid-day they commenced their march towards that 
river, which was twenty-seven miles distant. 

After journeying ten miles, they halted in the evening at a small 
village, and set out again at midnight for the river. Their route 
led them among vast fields of soft sand, formed into ridges like 
those on the verge of the ocean: the belt of saud bills between 
Bokhara and the Oxus varies in breadth from twelve to fifteen 



Traveb through Central Asia, 309 

miles. They are utterly destilute of vegetalion, and preserve a 
remarkatile uniformity, all being of the shape of a horse-slioe, the 
outer rim to the Dortliward, from uhich quarter the winds of tbis 
couutry blow. Ou this side the mounds sloped, while the inner 
edge was precipitous ; none of these hills exceeded fifteen or twenty 
feet in height, and all rested on a hard base. The thermometer 
rose in the day to 100°, and fell to 70" at night. About four miles 
from the Oxus they came to verdant fields irrigated by that river. 
The point where they had come down upon the Oxus was at 
Betik, opposite Charjooee, one of the greatest ferne§ between 
Persia and Toorkistan ; the boats and baggage were therefore soon 
transported to the opposite bank. From the farmer of the ferry 
Ueulenant liuines learnt that the river had been frozen over the 
year preceding, which is a very unfrequent occurrence. The 
stream of tlie Osus was here 650 yards broad, and in some places 
tweuly-Hve to twenty-nine feet deep ; its banks are much depressed 
and overgrown with a rank weed which chokes the aqueducts. 
Some Ash of an enormous size, weighing from 500 to 600 pounds, 
of the dog-fish kind, are produced in this river, and used as food 
by the Uzbeks. This tine river was now for the first time turned 
to the purposes of navigation, since there is a commercial com- 
monication kept up by means of it between Charjooee and Or- 
gunje. Charjooee stands six miles from the banks of the Oxus : it 
IS pleasantly situated on the verge of culture and desolation, with 
a pretty fort on a hillock overlooking the town, and is said to have 
resisted the amis of Timour. The population does not exceed 
5000 souls, but the greater part of them wander <ip and down the 
Oxus during the hot months. In the bazaar were knives, saddles 
and bridles, cloth and horsecloths of native manufacture, but the 
only articles of European fabric were a few beads and chintz skull- 
caps. Most of the people in the bazaar were Toorkmuns of the 
Oxus, and the different articles were arranged in separate parts of 
the bazaar. Every one having supplied their wants at this last in- 
habited spot of civilization between Bokhara and Persia, and every 
vessel being filled up with water, the caravan commenced its march 
at noon of the 'i2nd ; it consisted of about 150 persons, with 80 
camels. Some travelled in panniers placed on camels, some on 
horses, and some on donkeys, but even the meanest had some kind 
of conveyance. The mode of travelling is to start at mid-day and 
march till sunset, and after a couple of hours' rest to resume the 
task and continue till daylight, when they usually reach the next 
itage. Their first stage was to a well of brackish water called 
Karool, twenty-two miles from Charjooee : the whole tract was a 
dreary waste of sand-hills, but not entirely destitute of vegetation, 
as there were some shrubs on which the camels browsed. On 




310 TnireU &magh Caitni Ana. 

dtcir march thej met a party of Toorkmnns retnmiag with seveD 
Peniaii captives taken near Meshed. 

From Karoal the; quitted the high road of die caraTwns, which 
leads to Merve, and proceeded westward into the desert, as the 
officer commandiDg the Orgunje army had sent a messenger to 
direct their march upon bis camp. On ibe following morning they 
reached lite well of Balghooee, twenty-four miles distaot, wiiere, 
having emptied it, they bad to wait till nigfat, that it might fill 
again. In ibis march the desert was overgrown with brushwood, 
but entirely destitute of water ; a few rats, lizards, and beetles, 
with occasionally a bird, were its only inhabitants. Some of the 
saiKl-hills now attained the height of sixty feet, but at that eleration 
they are invariably bare of all vegetation. There was nothing 
peculiar in the colour of the sand, which was quartsose. lite heat 
of the sand rose to 150°, and that of the atmosphere to 100'. 
After a day's detention to rest the camels, they marched at sunrise, 
and continued with only a short halt till the same time next day, 
making a stage of thirtv-five miles to a fetid well called Seerab. 
The desert now presented an undulating and uneven country of 
sand partially covered with shrubs, and the soil was salt in some 
places. Tbeir next march brought them at midnight to Ooch- 
ghooee, or the Three Wells, where they met some wandering 
Toorkmuns, the first since leaving the Oins. The country con- 
tiimed to change as they advanced, becoming more tiat and free 
from sand. Next day, at uoou, they again set out, and by sunset 
found themselves among the ruiiis of forts and villages now de- 
serted, — the ancient remnants of the civilization of the famous 
kingdom of Merve ; and after a cool and pleasant march over a 
flat and hard plain, thej- found themselves about nine on the fol- 
lowing morning at a large Toorkniun camp, near the banks of the 
Moorghab, at a place called Khivajer Abdoolla. They here learnt 
that the Orgunje camp lay on tlie other side of the river, which 
was not fordable but at certain places; and the merchants decided 
that they themselves, with the conductors of the caravan, should 
proceed in person to conciliate the officer in charge, while our 
travellers were left with the slaves and drivers, praying most 
heartily for their success. 

Speaking of the desert in a military point of view, Lieutenant 
Burnes thinks it almost impracticable for an army of modem 
times to cross it, from the ver; scanty supply of water to be ob- 
tained, and the scarcity of grass for the cattle ; but it might 
be traversed by light cavalry capable of moving with rapidity, 
and taking diflTerent routes, there being one both to the east and 
west of the high road to Merve. The Toorkmun camp where 
they halted consisted of about loO conical moveable huts, which 



Travels through Central Atia. 31 1 

were perched on a rising ground ; countless flocks were at 
pasture around it, tended by only one or two individuals aided 
by dogs of the mastiff breed. The parly who had proceeded to 
the Orgunje camp returned next morning with an officer com- 
missioned lo collect llie lax, which he declared lo be one in forty. 
The merchants treated him with marked attention, and began to 
gire an account of their wares, which fear of discovery caused to 
be a very exact one. The scene is described as very amusing. 
Being now at liberty to proceed, ihey moved at dawn of the 29lh 
of August, and followed the course of the Moorghab for twelve 
miles before they could cross it. Its breadth was about eighty 
yards, and five feet deep, running \vithin clayey banks at the rate 
of five miles an hour ; they crossed by an indifferent ford, over a 
clay bottom, at a place called Uleesha, but there is no village. 
This river rises in the mountains of Huzara, and loses ilself in a 
lake about fifty miles N.W. of Merve; it is the Eparctus of 
Arrian, The country is covered with the tenements of the 
Toorkmuns, who cultivate by irrigation, and everything grows in 
rtcli luxuriance. About Merve the country is called Maroochab, 
and is very unhealthy. On the 30th, ihey retraced the greater part of 
the previous day's route, travelling along the opposite banks of the 
Moorghab about sixteen miles ; and again hailed at a Toorkmun 
gettlement called Kunjookoolan, when they commenced their march 
in the desert westwani of that river, making a progress of ihirly- 
seven miles. The tract was entirely different fiorn the opposite 
side, and about midway the desert changed to a hard flat surface, 
which it afterwards preserved ; the country was destitute of water, 
but there were the remains of many caravansaries and cisterns 
built by Abdoolla Khan of Bokhara, In tiiis neighbourhood they 
witnessed a constant succession of whirlwinds that raised the dust 
to a great height, and moved over the plain like water-spouts at 
sea. As they halted on llie morning of the 1st of September at a 
ruin called Kalonmee, they descried the high lands of Persian 
Khorasan, and observed a magnificent mirage in the same direc* 
tion. In approaching Shurukhs ihey could perceive a gradual 
rise in the country ; and exchanged the shrubs of the desert for the 
tamarisk and the camel's thorn. They reached Shurukhs at sun- 
rise of the 2nd, having performed a journey of seventy miles in forty- 
four hours, including every halt, or thirty-two hours' actual march- 
ing. This is a Toorkmun settlement, consisting of a small weak 
fort, situated on a hillock, under cover of which most of the in- 
habitants have pitched their dwellings. There are a few mud 
houses, which have been built by the Jews of Meshed, who trade 
with these people. Two thousand families of the Salore tribe, 
the noblest of the race, are here domiciled ; and as many horses, 
of the finest breed, maj be raised in case of need : ihey pay a 



I 

I 




312 Trawlt ihrough Ceniral Aria. 

doubtful sllegiance to Orgunje and Persia. The counti? around 
ii well watered by aqueducts from the rivulet of Tejend : the soil 
is eiceedingly rich, and possesses great aptness for agriculture. 
The crops of wheat, juwaree, and melons, are most abundant ; 
but not a tree or bush enlivens the landscape. At this place, our 
travellers experienced great alarm at the prospect of detention ; 
but through the influence of the principal merchants of the cara- 
van, this difficulty was overcome by bribing the Toorkmun chief 
with their stock of tea and about twent)'-six shillings in cash. 

Their stay at Shurukhs, which was occasioned by ilie fear of a 
large party who were sent from the Orgunje camp on a foray to 
the Persian frontier, gave Lieutenant Bunies an opportunity of 
aeeing much of the manners, &c. of the Toorkmuns. Their tents 
are about twenty-tiv£ fe«t in diameter, the sides of lattice-work, 
and Ifae roof formed of laths, brancEiing from a circular hoop about 
three feet in diameter, through which the light is admitted. The 
floor was spread with felts and carpets of the richest manufacture, 
looking like velvet ; fringed carpets were also hung up round the 
tent, on one side of which was a press, in which the females of 
the family kept their clothes, and above it were piled the quilts 
on which they slept ; yet the whole tent can be transported on one 
camel, and its furniture on another. They have no mosques, but 
say their prayers iii the tent or in the desert, without ablution ; 
there are also but few priests among them, and those very poor, 
for the church has little honour among them. Their marriage 
customs are romantic. 

Oil the seventh day after their arrival, the party of whom they 
gtood in awe began to arrive, having made their foray up to the 
very walla of Meshed, and captured 1 15 human beings, 200 
camels, and as many cattle, a fifth part of which was the portion 
of the Khan of Orgunje, by whom they had been dispatched. At 
length, on the 1 Itb of September, they joyfully quitted Shurukhs 
at sunrise ; their caravan having been increased by the junction of 
two others during their stay. In the afternoon they halted at a 
cistern, eighteen miles from Shurukhs, the fort of which was still 
visible, having traversed a level country broken in some places by 
gravelly hillocks. At the third mile they crossed the dry and 
pebbly bed of the small river of Tejend, which rises in the neighs 
bouriiig hills, and is lost in the sauds ; its pools were saline, aud 
much of the soil was also salt. No such great river as the Ochus 
nor the Herat river, of our maps, has existence. About eight at 
night, they again set out, and having advanced seven or eight 
miles, entered among defiles and hills, and found themselves, a 
little after sunrise, at Moozdeian or Durbund, the frontier post in 
Persia, and forty-five miles from Shurukhs. The latter part of 
the route lay in a deep ravine, and they pushed forward from fear 



Travels ikrougk Central Asia. 313 

of tlie Allamans, or robbers of the desert Eleven look-out towers 
crowD iLe crest of the range, and command llie pass of Ourbuud. 
The caravan alighted in the fields bevond the fort of Moo^deran, 
which stands on an isolated spur of table land, in descending the 
pass : it is now in ruins, having been razed by the Khau of 
Orgunje, some years since, uho seized all the inhabitants. There 
is a spring of tepid water under Moozderan, which makes for 
itself a channel down the valley. 

Leaving Moozderan, ihey wound up the valley of tlie Tejend, 
here a beautiful brook, and arrived, a little after noon of the fol- 
lowing day, at Ghooskan, the first inhabited village of Persia, 
about fourteen miles from Meshed. It is peopled by Teimurees, 
a tribe of Eimaks, and has a population of lUOU souls. In tbe 
night they left Gooskan, and reached Meshed, before the sun had 
risen on the morning of the 14di of September. The minute 
and correct account of this city given by Mr. Traser, Lieutenant 
Burnes observes, precludes the necessity of his entering into any 
detail. They received great attention and kindness from some 
English residents, and gladly exchanged the habits of the desert 
for those of civilization. By the return of a messenger who had 
been sent to the camp of Prince Abbas Meerza, they received an 
invitaUon to pay their respects to his royal highness, wbicb tbey 
did after a week's stay in the holy city, and visiting the sacred 
shrine of the Imam Ruza. They marched up the valley of 
Meshed, towards Ameerabad, a distance of forty miles, and 
bivouacked in the fields for the niglit. About twelve miles from 
Meshed, they passed the ruins of Toose, the ancient capital of 
Khorasan. Sixty miles higher up the valley, on the third day 
from Meshed, they reached Koochan, a town which Abbas Meerza 
had just taken from the Kuuids. This place, which stands 4000 
feet above the sea, is said to be the coldest spot in Khorasan : 
the theruiouieter fell to 'iQ" at sunrise in September. The valley 
varied in breadth from twelve to twenty miles, and there are some 
verdant spots under the hills, where the best fruit is produced, 
otherwise the country is bare and bleak. The hills are even 
destitute of brushwood, and rise to the height of 'iOOU to 3000 
feet above the valley; the roads arc hard and excellent. They 
passed many villages by the way, now deserted on account of the 
war. At the camp they met with European officers iu the Persian 
aervice. Koochan is a strong fortress, about a mile and a half in 
circumference, and surrounded by a ditch thirty-five feet deep and 
twenty broad, which the captors were filling up ; it was garrisoned 
by 8000 men. In the evennig they were introduced to the prince, 
who was very inquisitive reguiding their travels, and gave them an 
order ensuring their protection on their route among the Toork- 
mun tribes to the Caspian Sea. 



I 




314 Trtnelt through Central Ana. 

Here the traTellen separated, Dr. Gerard baTing resolved to 
tuni dowo upon Herat and Candaiiar, and thus retrace his 
steps to Cabool. On the 29th of September, Lieutenant Bumes 
joined Humza Khan, who had lately been appointed governor 
of the Toorkmuns east of the Caspian, and proceeded nith a 
part; of about 300 persons, composed of Koords, Persians, 
and Toorkmuns. They bivouacked, after a march of thirty-sis 
miles, beyond Shirwan, a strong fortress, with a deep wet ditch, 
□ow being dismantled. They followed the course of the Atruck 
river, which rises near Koochan, till within ten miles ofBooj- 
noord, rather a large place, when they left it running westward as 
a small rivulet, and crossed several mountain ridges. A march of 
thirty-eight miles brought them to Boujnoord, standing in a 
valley, and the residence of a Koord chief, who had prudently 
' tendered his allegiance on the approach of Prince Abbas. Here 
they saw, for the first time, the wandering inhabitants, the Ilyats 
of Khorasan, about a thousand of whose black tents were scattered 
around. About four miles beyond Boojnoord they left the valley 
in which it is situated, and entered among hills, which, to the 
southward, were covered with pine trees. The climate was moist 
and pleasant, and there were many rich spots of cultivation among 
the bare hills. Though the country was mountainous, the roads 
were excellent, and, after a march of thirty-six miles, they 
reached Kila Khan, in the district of Simulghan, which is richly 
watered from the hills. A march of thirty-eight miles brought 
them to the site of the village of Shahbaz, but the inhabitants had 
all been transferred to Mazenderan. The tribe of Gireilee bad 
formerly peopled this part, but human beings appear to be here 
considered as much property as horseflesh. They were now 
travelling among mountains, with alternate hill and dale, and over 
a wild and romantic country; there were a few stunted pines on 
the hills, but they were oftener bare of everything but grass. On 
their road they' witnessed the running down of partridges, on horse- 
back, by the Toorkmuns of their party. Six miles from Shahbaz 
they took leave of the hill and dale, and descended into a valley, 
which contained the source of the river Gooi^an ; and their day's 
journey brought them among the tenements of the Toorkmuns of 
the tribe of Goklan, which contain about 9000 families. The 
different groups of tents were pitched in the open lawn by the 
side of a rivulet running through the dell, and around flourished 
the fig, vine, pomegranate, raspberry, mulberry, black currant, 
and hazel. This tribe, and that of the Yamood, which lies be- 
tween them and the Caspian Sea, are subject to Persia, but their 
allegiance is unwilling. The Yamood tribe is said to contain 
20,000 families. Pour days were passed at this settlement ere 
they again set out ; at length they cleared the valley of the Goor- 




TVovelf through Central Alia. 313 

gan river, and debouched upon the plain eastward of the Caipian. 
To the left, the bills rose to a great height, clad to the snmmit 
with forest trees and foliage ; to the right were extensive plains 
watered by the Atruk and Goorgan, and studded with ianumerable 
encampments of Toorkmuns, with their flocks and herds ; aod in 
front were descried, in the distance, the lofty mountains of Elboorz. 
Lieutenant Bumes having now left the, suite of the Khan, and 
journeying alone, avoided as much as possible all intereourse 
with the Yamoods, who are not so pacific as the Goklans ; but 
passing down upon Astrabad, by the plain, after a march of 
eighty miles, arnved at that city. The Caspian, though upwards 
of twenty miles distant, could be faintly distinguished. The 
plague bad the previous year devastated the town ; half the shops 
and houses were shutfrom want of masters, and the whole popula- 
tion did not exceed 4000 souls. Astrabad, called the " City of 
the Plague," is a place of no great note ; a dry dilch and a mud 
wall about two miles in circumference surround it. It is the 
birth place of the Kujurs, the reigning family of Persia. There 
are only four caravansaries, and but twelve shops for the sale of 
cloth; and, notwithstanding its favourable position, its trade is 
trifling. The magnificent causeway of Shah Abbas, which is still 
in tolerable repair, keeps open the communication with the pro- 
vinces south of the Caspian ; the trade with Orgunje, or Khiva, is 
comparatively trilling, there being but one or two annual cara- 
vans of eighty to a hundred camels, and scarcely any trade 
with Russia. It rains so much, that it is difficult to keep a mud 
wall standing, and the following ingenious plan baa been de- 
vised to effect it. A mat of reeds is placed on the top of the wall, 
covered with earth, and planted with lilies, which grow up luxu- 
riantly, and protect it from the rain. Though Astrabad is in the 
same parallel as Koochan, the thermometer, which there fell be- 
low the freezing point at sunrise last month, here stood at 60° in 
October. Astrabad produces the fruits of hot countries. 

Lieutenant Bunies proceeded to the banks of the Caspian, at a 
straggling village called Nokunda, thirty miles from Astrabad, 
where he embarked, and sailed out to view its beautiful coasts : 
the vessels are all of Russian build ■ they carry two masts, and 
hoist square sails, but there were no vessels of any great tonnage. 
There is a belief that the waters on the southern side of the 
Caspian retire, and Lieutenant Bumes observed that, within 
these last twelve years, they have retired about 300 yards ; he 
also corroborates the received opinion, tliat its level is below 
that of the sea. From Nokunda he proceeded to Ushruff, one 
of the favoured seats of Shah Abbas. All the fine buildings 
described by Hanway have been destroyed, though enough 




dl6 Irmeit thnu^ CatML Ana. 

remiins to leave %. favonnble impression of tbe tastes of the 
Persian monarch. A mile beyond Ushniff, he found Ihe great 
cauaewaj barncaded, and a villager seated with a stick, to 
pFevent a trespass ; he was the board of health at Ushniff, and 
Lieutenant Buraes now leamt that the plague was raging at 
Saree, tbe very town he had intended that day to halt at. Two 
miles from the town, this information was condrmed, and, alter- 
ing his plan, he took tbe high road to Tehran. Saree had 
suffered so severely from the plague in the preceding year, that 
there were not now more than 300 people in it. Mazenderan is 
a disagreeable country, and has so moist a climate, that tbe inha- 
bitants are subject to fevers, agues, dropsies, palsies, and many 
other diseases ; the people are sallow, and the children weak and 
rickety. It is a land of snakes and frogs ; but the snakes are not 
venomous, being of the water species. So great is the moisture, 
that the rice crops are mowed down near the ear, and placed to 
dry on the stubble, otherwise it would rot. Mazenderan is, how- 
ever, a rich province. The sugar-cane thrives, but they do not 
appear to prepare it beyond the first stage, and sell it as molasses. 
Cotton also grows luxuriantly, and silkworms are reared every- 
where : the fruit is good, and much of it grows wild. The pea* 
santry have a sickly appearance ; the houses are buried in vegeta> 
tion; creepers, melons, and pumpkins are seen resting on the 
roofs, and every house has its garden. 

At the village of Aliabad, which is twelve miles from Balfu- 
rosh, they quitted the causeway of Shah Abbas, and proceeded , 
south to the mountains, and entered the beautiful glen which is 
watered by the Tilar river ; this valley extends for sixty miles, 
and is tbe greatest of the passes into Mazenderan. Shah Abbas 
cut a road in the rock for about ten miles, which is yet passable. 
They cleared the valley by the pass of Gudook, which leads up to 
the table-land uf Persia ; the ascent was continued and gradual, 
and at Feerozkoh, they were again 6000 feet above the sea. The 
sides of the pass were very precipitous, and the road narrow : it 
had formerly been fortified. This is the scene of romance, and of 
the strains of Firdoosee, the Persian Homer, Lieutenant Bumes 
thinks this pass of Gudook may be identified with the Pylic 
Caspia! ; and it is a remarkable fact that, in the modern coinage 
of Mazenderan, that province is yet denominated Tt^uristan. 
The Taburi were attacked by Alexander in this neighbourhood. 
Feeroszkoh stands under a naked rock or fort about 300 feet 
high ; it resembles Bameean, from ihe excavations in the hills, 
where the inhabitants keep tlieir flocks also in the winter. The 
climate is severe, and (he snow lies for five mouths in the year. 
They made three marches to Tehmn, a distance of ninety miles, 




Trat^ through Central Alia. SI? 

halting by the way at the hovels of caravansaries, where the tra- 
veller lodges in the same room with his horse. The country was 
arid, bleak, and miserable, and (he number of villages most 
limited. At noon, on the SIst of October, Lieutenant Burnes 
readied Tehran, (be capital of the " King of Kings," and alighted 
at the house of the British envoy, by whom he was introduced to 
the Shah. His majesty, on hearing the account of his travels, 
was pleased to exclaim, in a tone of surprise, " Why, a Penian 
could not have done so much !" 

On the tst of November, Lieutenant Burnes quitted Tehran, 
and passing through Ispahan and Sbiraz, visiting the tomb of 
Cyrus and the ruius of Persepolia, reached the coast at Bushire, 
whence he returned by a cruizer to Bombay, where be arrived 
on the Itjih of January. A better summary of his travels can- 
not be given than in his own words. He had visited Bactria, 
Transosiana, Scythia, and Parthis, Kbarasm, Khorasan, and 
Iran ; retraced the greater part of ibe route of the Macedonians ; 
trodden the kingdoms of Porus and Taules ; sailed on the 
Hydaspes ; crossed the Indian Caucasus, and resided in the 
celebrated city of Balkh. He had beheld the scenes of Alexan- 
der's wars, of the rude and savage inroads of Jengis and Timour, 
as well as of the campaigns and revelries of Baber : in the jour- 
ney to the coast he had marched on the very line of route by 
which Alexander bad pursued Darius ; whilst the voyage back to 
India took bim on the coast of Mekran and the track of his 
admiral, Nearchus. 

Mr. Burnes also adds to his Narrative three Supplementary 
Books, the nature of the information contained in which will be 
best indicated by inserting a table of their titles aud contents. 

L Genera/ and Geographical Memoir on Part of _ 
Central Asia. 
Account of the Kingdom of Bokhara — The River Oxns, or Amoo ; 
with some notice of the Sea of Aral^On the Valley of the Oxus, 
&c. — On the reputed Descendants of Alexander the Great — On 
the Sources of the Indus — Notice of Varkund, and its intercourse 
with Pekin, Bokhara, and Tibet — On the Mountains of Hindoo 
Koosh — Toorkmania, or the country of the Toorkmuns — On the 
Inroads of the Tartars, with a notice of the Tribes in Toorkistan — 
On the Horses of Toorkistan. 

II. Historical Sketch of the Countriei between India 
and the Caspian Sea. 
The Punjab — Historical Sketch of Events in Afghanistan since the 
year IB09 — Chiefship of Peshawar — Chiefohip of Cabool — On the 
Affairs of Western Afghanistan — Summary on the Affdrs of Ca- 
bool — On the Power of Kooudooi: — Sketch of the History of Bok- 




518 Narrative of a Patiagefnm BooAaj/ to England. 

hsra— On the PolilicBl and IfiliUry Power of Bokhan— On the 
Sute of Khiva, or Orgunje — On the North-east Fiontieia of Penia : 
the Koorda and Tooriununs. 

III. On tKe Commerce o/CetUral Ana, 

On the Commercial Relations of the Ponjab, and the Adrantigea of 
Opening the lodoB — On the Commeroe of Cabool— On the C<mi- 
merce and Foreign Ck>nunnnications of Bokhara and Central Aufr— 

' Notice on the Trade of Persia. 



1X.~~NaTrative of a Pasaage front Bombay to England; detcrib- 
ing the Author't Shipwreck in the Red Sea, and aubimunt 
Journey* oeron the JVu6iaft Deiert. By Captain W. Bour- 
chier, K.N. London. 1834. lemo. pp.105. 

The author of this little volume was wrecked near the island and 
port of Suakin, on the western shore of the Red Sea, and re- 
turned to England via the Nile. He was thus led to cross its 
eastern desert by a route not, we believe, previously Iraveised by 
any English traveller; namely, from Sualiin, in a direction nearly 
west, to Berber ; and has thus added another itinerai^ to our pre- 
vious knowledge of this district. 

We shall first insert this itinerary as brought into a tabular view 
by Captain Bourcbier himself, and then select a few of his accom- 
panying details : — 

Coanes and Dislamxtfrom Suakin to Berber. 
Conne* Mt b; ■ pocket compsa ) the dbtuieet «Btiiiiated hj tlve. 
Ditei. Couraci. Hilei, Houii. Rewulu. 

6 Filled water-skins. 

7^ Water in pools, sco(^)ed by 

the hand. 
8 Well Ochock (good water). 
3j Bedouin eocampnient. 
?{ Guide breaking camel. 
5* Well Skidhee (water bad, 
6| [watered camels). 

9i Rocks, Ajitelopes. 



Dec. 13. 


W.byS. 


13 


1*. 


W..t. 


20 


15, 


S.W.byW.lW. 
S.W.iW. 


30 


16, 


10 


17, 


W.byS. 


23 


18, 


W.byS. 


22 


19, 


W.byN. 
W.byN.JN. 


25 


20, 


27 


21. 


W. byN. J N. 


29 


22, 


W. by N. 


25 


23, 


Wnt. 


32 


24, 


We.t. 


8 



n 



Well At Bak (uncertain In 
Deep sand. [summer). 
Reached Berber. 



The road, on first leaving Suakin, is deep sand ; but (he whole 
of the third day's journey was laborious ascent. Arterwards, the 
country was diversified ; and near the well Skidhee there was an 




Narrative of a Pottage fnm Bombay to England. 319 

extensive patch of dhourra under cultivation, with numerous 
flocks of sheep and goats, and abundance of camels, paitiidng 
near it. The dryness of the atmosphere was occasionally exces- 
sive, and distressing to bear; but the incidents of the journey 
generally were few. No alarms were received from robbers, or 
any other cause. The journey was performed on camels ; the 
number of the party was fourteen. 

Suakin is a sea-port of some note, and trades in partjcular with 
the opposite coast of Arabia. It is thus generally resorted to by 
pilgrims proceeding from the westward to Mecca. It is on an 
island not exceeding one-third of a mile in any of its dimensions ; 
and is thus a small place, but populous. Berber is of greater 
magnitude and importance, but too well known to be here mi- 
nutely described : it enjoys a considerable trade, chiefly in Surat 
piece-goods, sandal-wood, and perfumes, from the Red Sea ; the 
returns for which are slaves and dates; and in elephants' teeth, wax, 
gold, and slaves, with Abyssinia. There is an indigo manufactory 
near the town, establiiihed ten years ago by Mahomet Ali ; but the 
usual vice of his govemmeut is here, as elsewhere, observable — 
almost every branch of trade and agriculture being a close monopoly. 

From Berber, the travellers proceeded along the Nile to Abu- 
Hamet, ajourney of five days ; whence they struck across the desert 
to Kroosko. This journey was more severe and fatiguing, both 
for men and horses, than that from Suakin to Berber : the sun 
being scorching by day, and the night-wind, though so cold as to 
be painful, was equally dry and withering. The route is known, ' 
yet we subjoin Captain Bourchier's itinerary of it, concluding 
with it this notice of his book. He seems to have undergone con- 
siderable danger and hardship, and to have supported both with 
the characteristic spirit and light-heartedness of a British seaman. 
But bis means of adding to our exact knowledge of the countries 
he visited were necessarily small. 

Couriei and Distances from Abu Hamet to Krootho. 



4, 


N.N.W. 


5 




40 




4, 


N.byW. 


21 




30 




5, 


N.byW. 


26 




10 




6, 


N. by W. 


27 




15 


WeU Mural. 


7, 


N.byW. 


22 








8, 


N.byW.iW. 


28 








9, 


N.N.W. 


13 




33 




9, 


N.byW. 


15 




35 




10. 


N.byW. 


38 


11 


20 


At Kroosko. 




Total luUeM 


219 


73 









X. — The London Atlas of Universal Geography. By John 
Arrowsmith. 50 sheets, London. 1834. 

We can now announce the publication of this work, the appear- 
ance of wluch has been delayed on motives very creditable to the 
author's zeal, but yet too long delayed, on any motives, after it was 
first promised. In his anxiety to incorporate in his sheets the 
Ycry latest information to be procured anywhere, Mr. Arrowsmith 
overlooked the fact, that the science which he illustrates is progres- 
sive, and that no moment is likely soon to arrive at which new 
matter will not be flowing in. 

The zeal, however, which has delayed the publication has un- 
questionably added to its value. In a Letter which he liai 
addressed to the Royal Geographical Society, Mr. Arrowsmith 
points out especially considerable improvements in the Map of 
Ireland, and in those respectively relating to Asia, Africa, and 
South America; and although it would have been more satis- 
factory if, with his mere statement of these, he had indicated in 
detail the sources from which he has drawn his emendations, and 
the principles on which, on each occasion, he has exercised a 
critical judgment, aud weighed conflicting statements — (in which 
case we should have felt it Hue to him to publish his letter verbatim) 
yet, knowing, as we do, personally, that he has had many exclu- 
sive advantages, aud has diligently profited by them, it appears not 
less due to the public to give this, our knowledge, currency. 

The Atlas consists of fifty sheets, of which many favourable 
specimens might be given, besides those above indicated. Some 
objection may be made, at first sight, to the little prominence 
given in most of them to physical geography : and we confess, 
ourselves, that we think a superior richness might have been given 
to this portion of the engraving, without injury to the clearness of 
the topographical detail; yet, substantially, the fault is more ap- 
parent than real. The physical characters of each country are 
not so much wanting, as much kept down; and the best judges 
of maps strongly object to any approach in them to heavy en- 
graving. 

The work, as a whole, is a most acceptable present to the 
geographical public; and its convenient size, combined with its 
pretensions to minute accuracy, enhances its value. To those 
who have frequent occasion to consult rndps, nothing is more 
irksome than a very large sheet — unless it be a meagre or incor- 
rect one. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



1. — Memoir on (he JVarow Land of Bnlisk Guiana, By William 
Uilliouse, Esq., Corresponding Member It. G. S. L, Re- 
printed tVomllie " Guiana Chronicle." 

[The VVoruw Cuuntry i« Ihe flat iJluvial coait belvccn the mouths of Iha 
Pomciooa and OtooDoka.] 

The alluvial deposit of the province of Guiana, extending from 
the river Amazon, Maranon, or Maran y abba* (which last is llie 
proper name, signifying the river of maran trees, or balsam of 
copaiba) to the Oronoque, presents on a magnificent scale a 
natural phenomenon which the geologist, and the general student 
of nature, will find the greatest interest in inve5ti«;ating. To pursue 
this inquiry with accuracy, it will be necessary, ui the first place, 
to understand the geographical and geological position of llie pro- 
vince of Guiana,— bounded by the sea on the north-cast, by the 
Amazon on the south, the Oronoque on the north and north-west, 
and insulated on the south-west by the junction of the Cassi- 
quiarewith the Uio Negro. I fee! a total inadequacy to this task, 
unenlightened ns I am by the science of the great American tra- 
veller, whose researches were confined to the south and west extre- 
mities of the province, leaving the northern parts so undescribed 
to Europe, that even the British legislature has not known in its 
enactments whether its richest possession was continental or 
insular. 

Extending sonlh-east and north-west, is a central granitic ridge, 
unbroken except by the river Massarony, which circumscribes one 
of its western forks ; to the north of this descend the rivers from the 
Oronoque to the moutli of the Amazon, carrying on to tlie sea the 
miscible particles of granitic decomposition, and incorporating with 
them in the passage the vegetable depositions of an immense tract 
of uninterrupted forest. The general tint of these waters ia a 
coffee colour, but many of their tributaries, by flowing through 
valleys of a whitish grey clay, become transiently tnrbid ; the 
Cuyuny is at its mouth considerably whiter than the Massarony, 
and the line dividing the two waters is apparent for some miles 
after thelrjunclion. At the Post in Massarony the water on the 
Cuyuny side of the stream is much inferior in quality to the oppo- 
site; there are shrimps and small lobsters in it, and the fish are to 
a connoisseur inferior in firmness and 6avour. The Cuyuny b 
crossed by large veins of clay, to which the Indians resort from 

• The IndlBD DDTnendatiiiu i>F places ami riu'rs hag ulwiya r.'reiuncu lu sums 



I 
I 
I 




3SS HilhouM*! Mtmair on file 

great distuKcs, for ibe maoufactorf of their cotAing atensUs, from 
Ms Hpoior fire-proof ^ualifiaaioiu, and wfakfa occaaion its milk; 
iBge. The black waten are tinted b; the iroo of the granite rocks, 
Md, at ibeirvEij source, are as daik as in an<r stage of their course : 
tUi is dw true tbeof/ of the black and white waters. 

AAcr stating this much, I am at a loss how, b; the coBunon 
nle, to account for the formation of the alluTium ; becanse, at 
thirty or for^ mites from the sea, aU the rivers aie perfectly trans- 
pareot, and do not afterwards become turbid, but bj the mgress of 
the tide from the sea ; upon contact with this the; beomie im- 
pregnated with mud, till at the mouth and for seieral miles out it 
aea, the whole waters of the coast are of a dirty cream colour. 

How a congregation of perfectly transparent streams should 
form such a deposition ms the alluvium of Gniana b to me inei- 
jdicable, particularlT as it is prored by Major Staple, b bcning 
for freah water, that this alluvium is upwanfa of 1 SO feet in perpen- 
dicular depth*. 

The depoution on the coast is a stiong bine day, highly ira]HVg- 
nated with marine and vegetable salt, uid vegeuble matter in the 
finest sUte of conuninulion ; and is fre<iuendy intersected by straU 
of sand and beds of small shells — fragments of which are found in 
^ general mass ; but the living animab, of vrhidi these shells were 
the teoemeots. are not found nearer the coast divi the blue water 
or deep sea. A consideration of this btter foct has induced me to 
hannl the supposition that the alluvium has a compound origin, 
deriving its fertile principle from the waters of tbe interior, bat its 
basis from large wins of clay on the coast, disturbed and dissolred 
by die winds and waie», and bnallv deposited on the line of coast 
U the extreme Ifnrard verge of tlie sea. This is rtol tbe precise 
definition of Ibe term alluvium, but it is fts near an atmroztmation 
to it as the formation of Kritisb Guiana will allow, loere can be 
•o doubt that ifae great rirer^ deposit to a certain extent ; but as 
reins of clay are as frequent at $ea as on land, it is even probable 
that their solution has prvnluced tbe great basin of ocean itself, 
and die action of di^p currents below has caused the deposition 
OB tbe margin abure. 

Tbe most cursory view of such a forwtation, combining at once 
all tbe fertiliiittg principles of earth and sea, will convince both 
■atiualBt and agriculturist that milUoos invested in its estivation 
were more certain in their pn>fil$ than if spent on mines of gold. 
Biitkfh capital has. in fact, doubled ilwlf m every ten rears, and 
in many instances in live. 

* It ic hovtm. •)b•«m^^. Am 13 
gvteUir sdtMT ilKKMnn, uU jc tn^ il 

■d vaaa at Alt va t&t •x.iA. Hb ch .m 



fTarow Land ofBriHsk Outana. 323 

The whole surfucc of the coast lands of British Guiana is on a 
level with the high water of the sea. When these lands are drained, 
banked, and cultivated, ihey consolidate and become fully a foot 
below it. it requires, llierefore, unremitting attention to the dams 
and sluices to keep out the sea, one innndatton of which destroys 
a sugar estate for eighteen months, and a coffee one for six years. 
The original cost of damming and cultivating is fully paid by the 
first crop, and the duration of ihe crops is from thirty to fifty years ; 
9o that though great capital is reijuiredforthefirat outlay, the com- 
parative expense of cultivation is a mere trifle, compared with that 
of the islands, though the expense of works, buildings, and ma- 
chinery may be treble or quadruple, being built on an adequate 
scale for half a century of certain production. This is the tnic 
reason of the great original outlay in Uemerara ; which has been 
encouraged by the merchant from motives of clear-sighted economy 
and interest, and those who have asserted the contrary have betrayed 
an ignorance of causes, as well as an inexperience of consequences, 
by attributing it to the extravagance of the planters. In no part 
of the interior that I have ever seen could cultivation be carried 
on so as to command an equal rate of production for less than five 
times the expense of that of the coast. 

! have thought it necessary to insert these remarks, as an anti- 
dote to Ihe hasty assertions of casual and superficial observers, who 
have imagined that the grand and complicated scale on which cul- 
tivation is carried on in British Guiana is the result either of 
pride in the display of means, or of avarice in the speedy acquiai- 
lioii of wealth, ITie system is one of necessity, dictated by 
every principle of economy and humanity. It has enabled pro- 
prietors to increase the comforts of their dependants on D scale un- 
precedented elsewhere ; and when it ceases, the population must 
of course descend to a state of starving pauperism. I state this 
without any reference to former or future events, but as the result 
of a conviction which is in every instance founded on fact and 
direct pefsonal experience. 

There is considerable difference in the rise of tides on the coast ; 
at Demerara it is from eight to ten feet, at Pnmeronn from six to 
eiglit, and at the Wayena scarcely more than four feet ; this de- 
crease is undoubtedly owing to the constant falling of the Oroiioquc, 
the bulk of whose waters, (lowing to the ocean, retard those of the 
coast. Sluices for the cultivation of land here should there- 
fore be of greater proportionable width than is required to wind- 
ward ; and I much doubt whether coffee would thrive with such 
shallow drainage, My latest experience has convinced me that, 
from the Pomeroon to the Oronoque, no permanent drainage can 
be effected but by the agency of steam : any settlement of free 
labourers in this tract is therefore totally impracticable. 



I 
I 




3fl4 HUIioiue*« Memoir on the 

I come DOW to the description of what ii called the Warow 
Country, extending from the Pomerooa river to the Oronoque 
coaatwiie, and from the coast, twenty or thirty miles into the intenor. 
Its first feature is the Morocco creek. The debouchure of this 
creek is about five miles north-west of the Pomerooo river. Pro^ 
ceeding upwards to the south, in about ten miles it receives the 
Manwareeny creek, whose general course is to the north: Groni 
this point the Morocco creek verges west by north ; and ip less 
than half ■ mile, it receives the Uamaira Cabara, whose course is 
from the south-west : hence the creek proceeds about west by the 
north till it reaches a small creek called the Para ; when it fonu 
nearly a semicircle, going first south, then west, and latterly north, 
through the Savanna to its source. 

To the junction of the Manwareeny, the banks of the creeks 
are for the most part drowned land ; the south bank being slightly 
elevated — the north bank a vast flooded savannah. At the Para 
creek commences a succession of sand-reefs at irregular dis- 
tances, for the most part parallel with the coast and at various 
heights, from five to thirty feet. On these reefs ore situated 
many Indian villages — Warows, Arawacka, and Spanish Indians, 
refugees from the missions of the Main. Of the original forma- 
tion of these reefs it would be irrelevant to form any conjecture. 
They are composed of sand, clay, and fragments of stone or 
gravel, of burnt clay, silex, and iron ore, no doubt the product of 
the dreadful conflagrations with which this coast has so often been 
visited.* The intermediate valleys or swamps present evident ves- 
tiges of the same fires, in the charred truikks of trees at the surface 
and at various depths. The alluvial formation in these swamps is 
for the most part on a lower level than tliat of the immediate coast, 
but its deficiency is supplied by immense masses of semi-decayed 
vegetable matter, called pegaa, to the depth of from five to fifteen 
feet. This addition raises the level considerably above thai of the 
Hea, and cultivation might undoubtedly be carried on here, as ia 
the canals of Demerara, but requiring the same outlay of capital. 
The reefs can be settled piece-meat, and are accordingly occupied 
by a population of Indians more dense than in any other part of 
the colony, being of very superior fertility to any other eictra-allu- 
vial tracts. Tiie savannahs of this district present greater natural 
facilities for the cultivation of rice than any I have ever beheld : the 
miasmatic swamps of Mobile and Apalachi are not to be com- 

* Fir«l in the foreals ucciir nt iiilcrvoli, nflcr a long accunmlatian orregetablf 
reHciOQllie aiirrari'. A iticcriiijiiii uf ilcy hl-ixsoiii givva thin gupvntructure tbicam- 
IniililiiUty uF limli-r, niul tliv leait siurk ciiminiiiiicated i»n)lvcs the nliale diitrict ii 
ruiifluf-riiliaii. Thi'so fina |^-iieriitty t>]iii'ail Iruni river la river, and tuave the loii. 
paiMviully ir day, for many yeiir!i iil'tiIi-. Tliu whole coast of Fumeroon, sad tlul 
u[ Mnhuicuiiy und Abaiy, havu auHirid Ihua williia the Uat baircentuiy. 



yVarow Land of BritUh Ouiana. 325 

pared with them ; but llm cultivation requires a capital and a sys- 
tem like that of sugar, and cannot now be undertaken. I hazard 
tliis assumption on the supposition that a crop of rice can be taken 
off in four months ; otherwise, being under water for seven or eight 
months in the year, that and every other cultivation is utterly im- 
practicable. 

At the western extremity of the detour of the Morocco is a large 
savannah, ihroiigh which runs one of those extraordinary canals 
witliout current, which, on a smaller scale, like the Cassiquiare, 
Joins two rivers, and insulates the coast lands from the Morocco to 
the Wayena. These canals are called Elabbo, from Eta (Afau- 
ritia), and Abbo, a water course, being generally found in large 
swamps of mauritias, which is the case with this one : the 
verge of tiiis savannah being so exclusively surrounded by Eta 
busk, thai scarcely another tree is to be recognised. Here I have 
seen, at the top of a decayed eta,* the nest of the tropical musk 
duck, which we improperly call Muscovy, with the parents bring- 
ing singly, from a height of seventy or eighty feet, their newly- 
hatched progeny to their natural element beneath ; they appeared 
to lay hold of the duckling with the bill by the neck, and in five 
minutes the removal of fourteen was effected. I was on the spot 
directly, but after an hour's hunt, with several hands, not one could 
be taken, the young, though for the first time, diving fifty feet at a 
stretch, and hiding in the grass so as to defy pursuit — such is 
instinct. 

The Etabbo is about eight feet wide and four deep, but in the 
dry seasons much less, as loaded canoes cannot then pass. It is 
an incalculable blessing to the Indians of the Morocco, being a. 
natural inlernal navigation, which secures to theni the fisheries 
both of the Wayeua and Oroiioque ; from hence through the Kam- 
\vatta,f Ilarrabarra, lleara, and liarrjmany creeks, twenty hours' 
pull brings them to the lagunes of the Wayeua, of which I shall 
«iorlly speak. 

The Beara and Barrymany creeks are bordered exclusively by 
the manicole palm, overtopped by high trees of the Mora. The 
Wayena, for several miles below and above the junction of the 
Barrymany is trooly (tecloreum), of such luxuriant growth, that I 
have seen leaves nearly thirty feet long by three broad, without a 
flaw or intei'stice ; this is truly a most magnificent thatch for houses. 
Below the region of the trooliea commences tlie cacateery, a kind 

■ The miuk, and all the viLcUtiiM of the viciui or whiitling duck, peich auil cooat 
on tntiii: tbeiiiii*ii duek i* dameiticaled; but I have not kiiuwu the viciui to breud 
in th«t rtale. The tame hefa, or uiuslt durk, ii interior to Iho wild in flargur, being 
motu cofttse and mu>ky : it varies in culoiic ; that nf the wild Iwiiig unirurmly a blui: 
I>kck wilh a while spot un llm wings. The lame dcake huB tnicu OS uititb baiv flebh 
un the huad an tha wild. 

\ KuDwolta, the nsliva tumboo. 




386 Hilhoiue'* Memoir on tite 

of mingrove, and inunedtatel; at die verge of tbe cm, the coontUf 
•o tlut each rariety of paint and aquatic tree* appean to have 
a dutinct region. In July, 1824, 1 tnvened mu route, and 
again tbe ensuing year. Tbe manicole was then bearing lipe 
frui^ like a amall black cherry, and the Beara and Barrfinan; 
creeks presented the most lively spectacle that could be imaginad] 
innumerable flocks of every variety of tbe parrot tribe, cooloos, 
maroodys, powis, and monkeys, kept up such an incessant chatter- 
ing and wreaming, that a large Eaglish rookery was but a feeble 
compariaoD. The young of all birds are at this season just fledged, 
and it is worth while to travel in the rainy season with a tent in 
tbe corial of trooly leaves, for the pleasure of two or lhr«e daya' 
■ucb shooting as beats all tbe battues of Europe. I am a bad 
■hot, but I managed every morning, between seven aad ten, without 
leaving the corial, to bag twenty or thirty head of the above vane- 
ties: the large blue and yellow macaw being the most numeioui, 
and crossing tbe creek within pistol-shot in all directions. Aa a 
bint to gourmands, macaw soup is similar, and I think equal, to 
hare ; and that of parrots, at this season when remarkably fat, u 
also escellent. The powis is like turkey, with a game flavour, and 
the cooloos and maroody are decidedly better than the pheasant of 
Europe. My canoe carried eighteen men and five women, I bad 
a laige circular iron plate, used for baking cassada, a-midahips; 
and on this a fire, " which always burned," well loaded with soups, 
stews, and pepper-pots. 1 had eight fowling-pieces on board, but 
two v'ould have been sufEcient for the supply of double our oew. 

On leaving tbe Barrymany, and entering the Wayena, here about 
two hundred yards broad, the scene changes at once. No mon 
raanicoles, nor feeders thereon; but now and then a flock of vicissi 
ducks or a pair of hefas. By sending a small craft in advance, on 
one side of the river, and following slowly in the canoe on tbe 
other, I managed to decimate at least every passing flock, pro- 
curing a most delectable change of diet ; the vicissi duck being, 
without exception, the most superb viand of any part of the woHd. 

Ascending the Wayena a few miles, on the west is the Iterila* 
creek, which communicates by an etabbo with tbe upper Baremi. 
In tlie lower lagune, the Mora passage, large enough for 
•chooneis, again joins, so that the space between the two riven 
is twice insulated. I proceeded up the Iterite creek, and todi: 
up my rest in a Warow town or village. 

He whose tastes are indiscriminate, like those of the h<^ — who 
will not thank his Creator, by preferring the clean to the unclean — 
who b no disciple of either Somerville or Izaak Walton — hai no 



fVaroui Land of Brifislt Guiana. 327 

business to travel, at least in Guiana. A man should here have 
his animal and mental perceptions equally in a state of alert excite- 
ment; he will otherwise lose all the pleasure and most of the 
profit of travel. Hunting, shooting, and fishing open the museum 
of nature; and a discriminating palate will visit that museum 
often. Aiiotlier qualification is indispensable — a ready pencil in 
waler-colouts ; this saves the annoyance and expense of a com- 
panion, and the pencil is a faithful and credible witness, with- 
out which the pen is too often held as the mere loul of travellers' 
stories. It is my firm belief that no man can narrate an intel- 
ligible and faithful description of any object in nature, except he 
can also make a faithful drawing of it. Let Walter Scott describe 
tbe Trosachs, and let the best artist paint from his description — 
what likeness shall we find to the real scene ? 

This is a prelude to a rough but faithful etching of a Warow 
village ; not one " suspended from the tops of trees," but built in 
and with eta trees; and which will sufficiently explain the ejro- 
neous description of H umboldt. 

The Mauritia grow in clusters as thick as trees can grow ; the 
Warow selects one of ihese groves, and fells the trees about four 
feet from the surface, on their stumps he lays a fioor of the split 
trunks; the troolies are generally adjacent for the roof, but if 
not, the eta leaf serves ; lumps of clay are laid on the tloor, on 
which fires are made, which at night illuminate the tops of the 
adjaceut trees, as if they were actually inhabited ; but the habi- 
tation is an irregular hut, raised on a platform just above the level 
of tbe water, which in these regions is three feet above the earth 
for three -fourths of the year. Some of them can contain 130 
people. Their duration is coeval with the supply of aroo*^, or 
eta starch, or the completion of the formation of a corial or canoe. 
When an eta tree begins to fructify, it is cut down, a large slice is 
cut off one side, and the stringy substance of the interior is cut 
into shreds, the remainder of the trunk serving as a trough, in 
which it is triturated with water, by which is disengaged a consi- 
derable quantity of starch ; the fibrous particles are then extracted, 
and the sediment or aroo formed into moulds like bricks. This is 
spread out, on stones or iron plates, over the fire, and makes a 
very nutritive, but at the same time most immasticable bread — it 
must be unavoidably bolted, being so very viscous that chewing 
absolutely locks the jaw ; it is, nevertheless, excellent to thicken 
Boup, and is a general specific for diarrhoeas and dysenteries, which 
in these aquatic regions are the prevailing diseases. 

In the gn-en part of the trunk, a beetle of about an inch and a 

•Aroo — ituch; aroo aroo (arrow- roul) — staich of (larch, thai ruot growing the 
gtaateit piaportioa of all knonn vugelnbles. 




328 Hilbouse'f Mtmoir on the "■' 

balf long, with k long anout, which lays its eggs, and m about 
a fortnight grubs,* about the size of the two firat joiDta of the 
forefinger, makes its appearance. I'hese are a favourite by both 
of the Warows and the Creoles ; the; are scarcely distinguishable 
froiU'beef marrow. 

There is do want of fish, particularly the creek varieties of the 
Siiana ;^ so that the Warows bave all the necessaries of life with- 
out in any one instance cultivating the soil in this region, 'Dioie 
settlements of them at the heads of creeks, where the land is firm 
and dry, cultivate the cassada, &c. as the other tribes ; but the 
bia<£ tree, of which their canoes and corials are constructed, does 
not grow, except here and there on the detached reefs in tbc eta 
swamps ; and here, therefore, they are obliged to reside for the 
purpose of forming craft, by the sale of which they supply them- 
selves with axes, knives, fish-hooks, iron pots, small looking- 
glasses, Ecc. ; such articles of British manufacture having found 
their way even to the most uncivilized recesses of the forest. ' 

The Warows do not differ in their general habits from the other 
coast tribes : they are dirty in their persons, and, in point of in- 
tellect, are much despised by others ; but they are certainly more 
industrious, and the skill with which ihey fashion a canoe for fifty 
people, on the most perfect model of speed and sea-worthiness, is 
a proof that they have at least one available talent. They furnish 
the whole colony with small craft, which for cheapness and dura- 
bility far exceed any European production. 1 gave ten pounds 
sterling for a bisce canoe, 40 feet long, 6 broad, and 3 deep in 
the centre : she carried with ease twenty-tive hands and baggage, 
and two months' materiel ; she passed four times over all the fdls 
of tlie Massarooiiy ; went twice through the Pomeroon rollers to 
the Orono<]ue ; was hauled over rocks, sands, and portages, and 
lasted ten years without a patch. Ho European craft, at three 
Umes the cost, will stand, in this climate, one-third of this wear ; 
and they must be housed, constantly repaired, painted, and are 
always leaky. 1 bought several of these craft in ihe Iterit^, where 
a dep6t of them had been collected, and by selling them at about 
cent, per cent in Georgetown, cleared tbe expense of my expe- 
dition. But the bargaining, except as au instance of national 
manners, was sufficiently tedious. First came a multiplicity of 
questions, then a jorum of beer, made of the fennented fruit of tbe 
eta, acid, astringent, and a red oil floating at top ; this being re- 
turned by a glass of rum, the trading treaty was concluded. Then 

■ OtCokoama. 

t I. Ilimeeiy— 2. caBiy — ,1. luwkiddy — 4. dawnlla— all Siluri; besidei judw, 
hoary, hsimara, lucanBuny, wahoocy, weycmi, huocooroa, &•:., ilrawingB sod de- 
Kii[rtio[» af which, with many otbei fruita of my labours in this country, axe ia Ihe 
Brill uL Museum. 



Waroto Land of British Guiana. 3«9 

came complaintB against tlie Spaniards* for taking away all their 
largest cral'l, leaving ihem nothing but such small ones as lay round 
the house, one of which, for eight or ten people, I bought for four 
axes. This I found was, however, only the basis of the bargain — 
a cutlass, a knife, paper of hooks, scissors, needles, pins, a razor, 
beads, and live yards of salenipores, being understood as all in- 
cluded ill die term four axes. 

This was a mere feeler ; as soon as the old chief or captain saw 
the complexion of my wares, and that I bled freely, ^ve or six 
other craft gradually niadi: their appearance, which 1 bought rea- 
sonably enough; and then was proclaimed a general dance. Tliis 
was merely stamping round in a ring, to a. simple monotonous 
soDg by the women, accompanied by beating on a monochord, 
being the skin of the arm of an eta leaf, raised by a bridge from 
the pith, not quite so musical as Paganini's. A few bottles of 
rum, very much diluted, raised their spirits far higher than I bad 
calculated on, and many regular rows and fights were the conse- 
quence, which were summarily settled by the captain ejecting all 
the belligerents into the surrounding water. 1 observed this to 
succeed admirably, as they clambered up into the house again as 
coal as cucumbers, and as good friends as ever ; I recommend the 
plan to all masters of ceremonies. The ball dress for the occasion 
was, for the men, divers figures of red paint on the face, red hands 
and feet, and a cord round the middle, to which was attached a 
salempore lap of the smallest possible dimensions. The women 
had a like cord with a piece of the bark of llie cacarally beat soft, 
and fastened fore and aft, so as to be a very inefficient substitute 
for mother Eve's fig-leaves. I left this Mauritian Almack's early in 
the morning, and, after a tedious passage, got into the Timity creek, 
and theuce into the Barema river, liotli banks of this river to 
near the mouth are a trooly swamp, intermixed with maricoles, 
moras, and a variety of aquatic trees. 1 observed floating on the 
surface of the water a plant, exactly the shape of a full-blown rose, 
but green and six inches in diameter. 1 could not find one in 
blossom ; though its roots are absolutely unconnected with bottom 
or shore, not one was to be observed after the water became 
brackish, nor washed out at the mouth ; it is a peculiar plant, both 
in habit and locality. Future botanists can classify the water rose 
of the Barema. The guns had rested for the last few days; they 
were now to do double duty. Macaws of three difiereut varieties; 
parrots innumerable; the greater and less powis ; three varieties of 
ihe maroody, with vicissi and hefas, and, by way of variety, tish- 
ahooting with arrows. 

* The S[Htniii[ili, when Ihey hear of any very laige cran on the blockB, Knd a 
juuty of meo who iiay Ihe IniiJiias some imall sum for their labour, and cut tho 
cnfl In piecei. This ii ilone to preveut smuggling gnil piracy, the only tiadi'l of Ibe 
Am peo^lB at the mouth of the UnuioquB. 




aSO HiUtooM't Jtfimotr ok tht 

llie rary-n«yn, a niiety of lilunu, growing to a Urpt hes, ia 
a ■luin; da; mes to the (urfKe between elereo aod one o'clock, 
and ito ioog donal spine may be Men standing out of the water in 
the mid stream. On seeing this, all haods are bushed at death, 
and the strongest and best shot goes forward with his bow and 
largest fish arrow, the rest paddling softly on to within certaio 
bow-sbot. On ihe delivery of the arrow, the fish dives, the craft 
pulls to the middle, then stops, and all eyes are directed to all 
points, till one detects the arrow-feather appearing, though but for 
an instant, above the surface ; away we go to that spot, which it 
scarce reached than the feather makes a second appearance, then 
a third, and so on, till the fish becomes fatigued, and allows the 
corial to get near enough for a second shot ; down he goes agun, 
and plays the same game, but with reduced meani, I never felt 
greater excitement than at my first hunt of a rari-mayii, vrfiicb 
look three arrows and nearly half an hour to kill ; he wei^ied 
nearly ninety pounds. Though not a firm, it is a well-tasted fish. 
In this chase, if the first rising of the arrow it not seen, it is ten 
to one if the fish is taken ; he will get out of sight and rub out the 
arrow against the bottom or tree-roots at the sides. 

In this river is found the maricotto and the palometo— the one 
a larger and the other a smaller iudividual of the pacou family — 
both very rich fish, and not found in any of the riven between this 
and the Amazon. 1'he small red brown maroody is also pe- 
culiar here ; and the tri-coloured carrion crow, or king vulture, 
entirely supersedes the common black carrion crow of Demerara. 
Appropriate localities are strongly marked in Guiana; the small 
and long-tailed agouti, or adoory, it not found west of the Esse- 
quebo ; the while-headed maroody, or cooloo, it not found east of 
the Wayena; the small powis, and the small brown maroody, are 
not found east of the Pomeroou. The cowauaru, or superb 
coq de roche, is a native of Ibe central granitic chain, and the 
great rivers rising in this chain are those which alone produce the 
pacou, and its vegetable aliment the weya. 

Between the Timity and the mouth, two large creeks join from 
the west, the Kaitooma and the Arooka ; just below the last, a 
hill of about 150 feet high is visible from the river, between which 
and the mouth the Mora passage on the eastern bank connects it 
with the lowest tagune of die Wayena, Point Barema is laid down 
in the Dutch charts as a boundary point from whence a S. W. 
line separates Spanish from what is now British Guiana. The 
Spaniards have always claimed territory east of this line, but never 
attempted any settlement. During the royal monopoly it was a 
great object with them to extend their jurisdiction as far to the 
eastward as possible, for the prevention of smuggling, which was 
then carried on upon a large scale. Since that period, the opening 
of the ports has done away with the contraband traffic, and tbe 



Warow Land of British Guiana. 331 

land between Bareraa and Waycna being uninhabited and unin- 
habitable, is not wortb the possession of either party. The 
Dulcb drew in their posts from the Barema to the Morocco reefs, 
then to the mouth, and then to the Pomeroon. The Spaniards 
once attacked the post at Morocco mouth, and were cut off to a 
man, which is tlie only warfare known on this territorial boundary. 

The Barema river is a mere creek of the Oronoque, and ought 
to be the boundary. From its moutli, tlie Oronoque bas an ap- 
pearance similar to the Delta of the £ssequebo. The only par- 
ticular worth remark is, that the Amacoora creek, which is some 
miles west of the Barema, is ia all charts that I have seen placed 
*everal miles to the eastward of the VVayena river, — at least twenty 
miles out of its proper place. 

On reluming, I proceeded through the Mora creek into the 
lagunes of the VVayena ; these are three enlargements of the river 
into lakes, the lowest the largest, with intermediate contractions, 
the western shores being shallow mud data; and here the Spanish 
Indians of the Morocco resort to tisb for querryman, a variety of 
ibe salmon about two feet long, which salts admirably and is the 
Staple of their subsistence. They are caught with casting nets, 
cleaned and salted on the spot, and then rapidly conveyed to the 
creek, where they arc dried in the sun. When enough is collected 
to make a cargo, a large canoe is freighted for the coast and town, 
where a ready sale is got at a guilder per tish, and the proceeds 
are expended in necessaries. 

The Wayena, at about twelve mil«s above the Barrymany, is 
joined, on the west, by a large creek called the Baramu, which 
I nearly equally divides in its course the space between the Wayena 
and the Barema. Here rising ground commences, and both 
branches assume the ordinary appearance of streams in the granitic 
region. There are trilling rapids in the Wayena, which are oblite- 
rate in the wet season. Both branches are inhabited by a tribe 
of Accawajs called Chayma, and a few Aruwaaks. The coast 
from Pomeroon to the Wayena, as laid down in all maps, is totally 
imaginary. In running down, 1 observed no promontories and no 
creeks. The Indians state that there are none, but an uninter- 
rupted north-west line, with a low mud flat in front far out at sea, 
and in some places spits of sand on which are rollers. There are 
twelve feet water on the bur of the Wayena, and the deep water 
is on ibe east shore. The Spaniards state that tlie water on the 
bar varies from ten to sixteen feet at different seasons, which must 
be from the inHux of drift mud, a common circumstance on this 
coast, where I have seen a canal eight feet deep filled in one tide. 

It will be evident, on a review of this immense tract, that though 
it be for the most part uninhabitable for the industrious and agri- 
culturist, it is a snug retreat for the pirate and the smuggler; in 




339 HiUioitse'4 Memoir on the 

fact, tbe lagunes of the Wayeni are adtntrably adapted for either 
of these profesnoDfl, and have in several known instances been so 
used. A vessel drawing twelve feet water, lying under the wind- 
ward shore, cannot be seen from the offing ; and here an; cargo 
can be disposed of piecemeal either to Oronoque or Demerara. 
The obvious policy of both tbe Governments, therefore, is to keep 
a iharp look-out in this direction, and the eye of the Indian ii the 
only one that can be used on the occasion. The constant visita- 
tion of the spot for the querryman fishery brings it under his im- 
mediate observation, and no pirate or smuggler could be there 
without his knowledge. As to his communicaiing such knowledge 
to the Government, it never can be eipected without an adequate 
inducement, for smuggling is no crime with tbe Indian who has 
no sovereign, and piracy is only on the water the trade of the 
Caribisce on land. 'Yhe question, therefore, becomes simply this: 
Shall a colony of pirates be founded in this quarter, by neglect — 
or DU out-post of police for its prevention, by civilizing its present 
inhabitants ? 

The territorial possession of this tract is thus a point of con- 
sideration with us, since if both the Spaniards and ourselves 
relinquish the jurisdiction, it is open as a neutral country to all 
adventureia, and the commerce of the neighbouring colonies will 
be exposed to great hazard. There is already apparent a great 
predisposition amongst the free people to squat in the Morocco 
creek, greatly to the annoyance of the Indians, who will be ulti- 
mately obliged to remove from thence, if the Government take no 
means of prevention. Here all public duties and local authori- 
ties can be easily evaded, and it will then become an Alsatia, or a 
similar establishment to that of Baratara in the gulf of Florida ; 
with this ditference, that, if once formed, it will be almost impos- 
sible to root it out. 

William Hilhousb. 

[Note, — The above paper was shown, previous to its publication, 
to Dr. Hancock of D^merara, who ))aa favoured the Journal with 
the following Note regarding it : — " I differ from Mr. Hilhouae en- 
tirely as to his views regarding tlie superior net productiveness of the 
Guiana system of tillage ; and his theory both of the colour of the 
rivers in that country, and the formation of its alluvial shores, seems 
to me also erroneous. But his account of the Warow country is very 
esact and valuable, particularly where he describes the inhabitants, 
whose close resemblance to the litloral Or coast tribes of the Maraiion, 
in Brazil, no one, I believe, has noticed. They are the same in pby- 
aiognomy and manners ; and their respective laogTiages also resemble 
each other in sound and fonn, differing in both from the dialects of all 
the other tribes. Their idiom is more simple, perhaps, than that of 
any other human beings ; they have a peculiar rattle and clatter in 



fVarow Land of Bntlih Guiana. 333 

their speecli, said their words abound in the letters n and e, as in 
vane-mane, vaho, &c. — peeuliaritiea in which we are aurpriseil to 
find a resemblance amon^ tribes g'eographically bo distant, and pos- 
sessing' no written character. Tliese tribes have both also the spresd 
in the foot, or duck's foot, as we used to call it in the Pomeroon, i. e. 
their feet and toes are spread out in the manner must suitable for walk- 
ing on the muddy shores and marshes which they inhabit."] 



II. — Extract from a Private Letter addressed to Captain Sabine, 
R.A., F.R.S., b,j Mr. Datid Douglas. F.L.S. Dated Woahoo 
(Sandwich Islands), 3d of May, i834. 

I AEEtvED ill Byron's Bay on the 2d of January of the present 
year, and took up my abode with the Rev. James Goodrich, an 
American missionary, from whom I have received great kindness. 
I have since made successive journeys to tlie summits of the 
mountains and volcanoes — my lirst being to Mowna Kaah, my 
second to Kiraueah, and my third to Mowna Roa. I shall give 
you a short account of each. 

1. Mowna Kaah, or the White Mountain, ascends gently at 
6rst, being skirted, near Byron's Bay (in1at l9° 44' N.), and 
itself by much the most beautiful and fertile district in this 
group, by a belt of about four miles breadth, cliieHy cultivated, 
and in which may be seen the bread-fruit {Atrocarpus incisa), 
banana, sugar-catle, taro {Arum esculentum), and other plants 
used in the domestic economy of the islanders, in great profusion 
and luxuriance. This region terminates 1300 feet above the level 
of die sea; then commences a densely-wooded country, princi- 
pally covered with several species of acacias, which attain a great 
size, and of which the native canoes are made. The underwood 
and brush is tree-fern, from four to forty feet high, and clothed 
to the lop with an almost endless variety of other ferns. This 
region extends to 8700 feet above the sea, and being either 
bathed in fog or refreshed with daily showers, nothing can 
possibly be more cheering to the eye than to see in it immense 
leathery fronds of ferns decorating the indescribably nigged lava, 
which, from time immemorial, has been vomited down the flanks 
of these extraordinary mountains. A small path led through this , 
wood, but in consequence of the late rains it was very bad, and 
the creeks weie high and dangerous to cross. The upper edge of 
the wood does not terminate gradually, with a decrease in the 
number, or diminution in the size of, the trees, as is generally the 
case, but is cut oli' abruptly, tlie limber on the very summit being 
as large as in any part of the section. The slope of ihis region is 
also gradual, the travelling distance lo lis extremity being twenty- 




Tit III tmAe 
IWaionlHlBc 



■KMitaa « brake* nco deep Aaamtr ntmOf m ' 
^bB esnad cntos. I did not find a Oik of c 
fl^M b ef «e« ^ fiiMMiwi R^oa a 
ccaao, as <m the moaBtans of Amcnca and Ewnpe ; »■ Ac cob- 
tan, a ^aaD ipcciea of s■crau■a^ a luicalar pbaC fadaapag to 
Ac peal enter of eam^oaitir, and a mall alpine jwmcma, «ae the 
fart irace> of nfie^uam ikat I o b e uiui . IV wMr vomlaB ii 
kKofvolcaaic oripa, diSmDg in co fi a U a eM , fai^ ^wi nUmg, 
kaiBg BO tnce of pnnftirc focaadoa, or niiBp of o^pHC ic- . 
KaiM : Md 1^700 feet faigb, a not elented lahle Iwd, « pfain, 
■ spread owt, otMcred with saao* paid, ^H stoBca, vJB Kons 
aad iriMs, todK depdi of seretal fact; ^kmv wkicfc tiae devts 
peA or fa^Bp, au Ae mart elerated of wfaid^ a ndge if SBl 
nrda in lesetk, 1 placed mj amammea»3, near a can af fan, 
faf ed , 1 JM(^ from Ae decaxcd stale of ibe laia. BBBf TCais 
a^oL Mj appantas *^'^»**'^^" of a r^Beetn^ csoe* a Irt^e Biira- 
K^B fer tkfemimin^ the dip of the m gnetic neede, appanlBi 

ftc 1 T^r To« for panictdan to tke accoaparag n^lu of 
olMenaiiaas ; and as the wealfaer was diaff, wmi d tmr vas 
taken, I tm pcntaded dni tbe« merit cuafckaci- The wild mm 
woltBl, bat leiT itcadT, S. 7j' W. : and tknia^ tbe LwdaaM of 
Mr. Goodridi J «as CBabkd to bare Hawdf larna i vbmjtaams 
^ea at kis bowe. 

Tbe^peoftfaeh^bertiid-eis j^. TIk sonifa hJ eart prtt 
b ecM pwud of aabes, whick makes it vcrr Uorions m bcoh) ; 
the aonk end b ks steep, and the footii^ b saicr <m Ac larje 
blocks of fan. All (be peaks may be kcomM, e ae pea g oae, 
whick kas a slope of 73'. and an clevatkei abo^ ibe pbm of 700 
feet. At the foot of li^iatica Peak. 1 100 fcet kam the ezticaM 
saamnt, there was a coodiclins CoanDOOcn ia the ckndb. far^cn 
vf ab ■wiiif ■ «err diiectioD. ani Ac wind ascendb^ im wloib. 
Tb dtitBde a ppealed to be die p t t te iX wWie Ae aorth eait 
mde'viKl b fck. TV th e n Dtwncter. at 4 f.m^ sSood at it at 
39': dewpoint. 14'. In ascendias (be ■Maataia, «e fammi the 
b j{ju » «.tu sak teiT le^ahri* with tte tboaosctn', to Ae heigbt 
«f ll,00Ofcet.aad'dwBitMilra|Mdhr. TWMiaranf iMrrmrr at 
Ae svBiBii itoianil J aozht my attealioai : and fcvM kst ibe etber 
■ijht harc been ajiffced &:o copioufly to ih« baO. I lepeated the 
expenmem five da>e9. «;dt almxs the tvae lesah. So delicate 
was tbe de«-RB: weii. iLii :t a-peami hk« aa exceeding fine 
per }dk thn^ : ye: d:« isomcnt of Tt< appeanace was leadil; 
peteencd, and it coatiitaiea ifam nsibk inm 4' to 4* 4*. The 



Volcanoes in Ike Sandwich Islands. 335 

hutant of its dbappeaTance, the mercury iu the intemal thermo- 
meter rose, as by a jet, from 3" to 3" b', and tlien gradually de- 
scended to within 2° of the external one. A very delicate thermo- 
meter, by Newman, which was compared at the lloyal Observatory, 
and also at the Iloyat Society, and found to have no index error, 
when placed in a perforated tin cylinder, and suspended four feet 
from the ground, stood at i!2°; while another, which in like cir- 
cumitances invariably corresponded with this, when exposed 
naked in the shade to tho wind, stood at 32° 3'. In a beantifnl 
bortaon of mercury without a roof, by a very satisfactory observa- 
tioB of the sun's meridian altitude, taken with a sextant having an 
index error of -f O"*'', the latitude was found to be (employing 
Young's refraclion) iy° 4!/ 58" N.; and by a series of ob- 
servations taken before and after noon, with a reflecting circle 
la-wys" N.: mean, IS^SO'N. U is of great importance to 
know the exact position of the culminating points in these islands : 
die longitude I cannot deduce, for want of an almanac. 

This extraordinary mountain does not reach the limit of per- 
petual snow, though snow, even to deepness, is occasionally seen 
in July and August. On the ISth of January this year, there 
was no covering of snow, and only a little lay here and there, on 
the northern blocks of lava on ihe extreme summit of the moun- 
tain. The total absence of verdure for about two thousand feet, 
the heating material of the lava, its insular position in the midst 
of the ocean, and its being acted on almost constantly by atmo- 
spheric currents, all probably raise the snow line ; and perhaps the 
mean temperature may be at present further raised by the volcanic 
agency which is ravaging the whole island. 

Sound is but very slightly diminished at the summit of Mowna 
Kaah, owing, undoubtedly, to the absence of snow. On the 
nioiifttains of North America, at a much less elevation, where 
■ROW is abundant, the firing of a gun is not heard at a short dis< 
tance even by the timid antelope or mountain sheep, especially if 
■now is actually falling. 

2. The volcano of Xiraueah, differing from the forms usually 
attributed to volcanoes, viz,, cone-shaped mountains with terminal 
orifices, is a vast sunken pit, of a nearly oval but somewhat irre- 
gular shape, with almost perpendicular sides ; and from time im- 
memcrial has been prodigiously active, though It has not, within 
the memory of man, been known to overflow, excepting in the 
ynir 1767, three years previous to Vancouver's first visit to these 
islands, when a very dreadful eruption took place, and lasted seven 
days and nights. 1 have this information from the last of the 
Priests of Peli (the Goddess of the Volcano), who witnessed the 
Kcne, and saw, as he says, 540J of his countrymen, the war party 
of Keoua, the cousin and great rival of Tamehameha, all perish 




336 Vokamtei tn tJu Sandwich IJaiuU. 

ID consequence of their imprudently endeavouring to pais on the 

south-west side, while the red-hot material was carried in that 
direction by a atroDg trade-wind. '^This person afterwards aasiited, 
also, in removing the remains of the dead to the fire into which 
they were throwo. 

The height of Kiraueah above the level of the sea has been 
greatly over-rated at 10,000 feet: it is only 3873 feet. The depth 
of its sides, down to the tirst black ledge or plain within it, baro- 
metrically ascertained, is 7'^ feet ; and to the lower black ledge 
1058 feet by one observation, and 1096 by another ; — in all these 
cases employing a reading before starting and another on return- 
ing, in heu of a umultaneous observation, (and neglecting any 
correction for diurnal fluctuation of the mercurial column, for de- 
termining which, or the precise time of its occurrence, 1 have not 
a sufficient amount of materials.) The mean of these barometrical 
measurements differs but slightly from others which I made geo- 
metrically, and which gave 99^' 10 feet. From the lower ledge to 
the surface of the volcanic lakes, the depth, as near as 1 could 
judge, was 43 feet ; which, added to the mean of the previous 
measurements, makes this awful place 1 120 feet deep on the west, 
the highest side, and 106S where my tent stood, at the north- 
west end. The latitude of this tent, by one meridian altitude of 
the sun, two passages of Sirius, and one of Canopus, is 19° £5* 
42" N. 

At the bottom two lakes of liquid lava first arrest the attention'. 
When the wind blows strong, one may approach to within a few 
feet of the edge of the smaller one, which b a nearly circulas 
basin, of 319 yards diameter, situated at the north, or wide end 
of the crater ; but the heat was so intense it was impossible to 
reach the brink of the laiger, which is situated near the south-west 
extremity, and, as near as could be determined, 1 190 yards long, 
of a heart shape, and a breadth between the lobes of about 700 
yards. The black ledge, however, from which these are vievrcd, 
is otherwise a sight whidi fills the mind of the beholder with ■«& 
A space of five miles square, recently in a state of igneoua fusion, 
in the process of cooling has been broken up into immense ledges 
and roiled masses, like the breaking up of a great river of ice ; and 
these are of every shape and form, from gigantic rolls, like enor- 
mous cables, to the finest threads, like tmman hair, which are 
carried by the wind for the distance of miles round this terrific 
laboratory. Numerous cliimneys, also, of various forms and sizes, 
are dispersed over the second, or lower, ledge ; some of which 
emit slag, scorix, smoke, or steam, while others are comparatively 
tranquil. There were three cones or bluffs, which I observed in 
particular, of from 20 to 0.5 foet height, and about ISO yards 
breadth at the base, with lateral doors, like those of a baker's 



Volcanoex in the Simdwich hlandi. 337 

oven, whtcli, indeed, the)' otherwise closely resembled : and into 
these, b)' kneeling on the ledge, it is possible to peep, and witness 
a tefrilic vacuity, a red-hot atmosphere, while the volcanic agency 
IS at the same lime discharging by a terminal vent-hole. Both lakes 
of lava have a steady southerly current, the force of which I was 
enabled to determine accurately by throwing blocks of lava on the 
lake, and noting the time they took to pass 100 yards : it is at the 
rate of three miles and nearly a quarter per hour. The south end 
of both lakes presents thus one of the most magniiicent spectacles 
in nature — a vast caldron of lava in furious ebullition, some- 
times spouting up to the height of '20 to 70 feet, rolling and 
tumbling in ticry waves, hurrying along, and finally precipitated 
down an elliptical fiery arch (that of the north, or smaller, lake 
having n span of 14'2 yards, wilh a maximum height of about 43 
feet). In this awful arch the force of the lava is in a degree 
arrested by the escaping of the gases, or volcanic forces, and large 
blocks are thrown back, and literally spun into the tilameutous 
glass already noticed, which is carried by the wind, like the refuse 
of a Hax-mill, all round the volcano. The sound issuing at the 
same time from the archway can hardly be spoken of ^— that of the 
whole steam-engines in the world would be a whisper to it. 

The southern, or great lake is otherwise truly sublime. It is 
not coristantly boiling, for at times it appeared quiescent, with 
serpentine fiery streaks on the surface, while at others the lava was 
thrown to a fearful height. Shortly after the numerous vent-holes 
discharged their steam or slag, the lake for a short time became 
tranquil ; and this continued to be the case during seven days and 
nights, the period of my stay. 

To the cast of this crater, at the distance of 370 yards, there is 
a very perfect circular one of much smaller dimensions, which 
has enjoyed, within itself, a long repose, for on the same level with 
its black ledge are found living trees with ISO concentric rings, or 
annual layers of limber. In Jime, 1632, on the neck between the 
two volcanoes, and on the exact spot where Lord Byron pitched 
a temporary house when he visited ICiraueah (called by him the 
Volcano of Peli) in 1825, the ground opened and discharged 
liquid lava, for the period of three days, into both volcanoes, 
which considerably filled them up. This was preceded by slight 
earthquakes ; and all verdure touched by the lava, as may be sup- 
posed, perished, — excepting the ferus, which, after a lapse of 
nineteen months, rose strong through the fissures, from one to ten 
feet deep, and have sent forth luxuriant fronds, as [hough nothing 
had happened to them, much less that they had been deluged 
wilh fire. 

A night view at Kiraueah is indescribably grand ; and never can 
I forget that in particular which 1 witnessed on the ^3rd January, 



I 



k^ 




338 VoJcanoeM in tfu Sandwich ItUmd*. 

Tbe Bun set in all the glory of a tropica) sk; behind the majetlic 
dome of Mown* Roa, clothed in anow for SOOO feet from tbc 
Rummit ; and as he crept behind the mountain the brilliancy and 
■plendour of the volcano became more manifeit. But when the 
nearly full moon roie in silvery brightness from the bosom of the 
ocean, and, as if this was insuffident, the splendour of Sirius and 
Canopus were added, the w^hole gave the heavenly vault an inde- 
scribable magni licence, especially when contrasted with the per- 
petual, lurid, electric-like cloud which overhung tbe volcano. I 
■at for hours and enjoyed the scene. 

On the 94th of January the temperature, at noon, on the 
northern brink of Kiraueafa was 6f)f, dew point 42°; while on the 
black ledge at the same time the first stood at 8Q°, llie latter at 
41°, the wind fresh from the N.£. The same thermometer laid on 
the lava in the sun's rays showed l\5° ; shaded, 1 13° ; and on (be 
brink of the smalt lake 124°. The dew-point here could not be 
found in three trials, the scale of the internal thermometer being 
under that range ; besides, the ether was boiling. At d** on the 
■ame day I returned to the outer edge of the black ledge, where 
a delicious cooling breeze was blowing from the N.E., and the 
thermometer stood at 76° 0'. Here the ether was readily ei- 
pelled from the coloured bulb of the hygrometer, and the bottle 
of it usually employed for pouring on the ball was further cooled 
in B calabash of salt and water; yet when the instrument was 
carried to tlie brink of the caldron there was still no ring of con- 
densation — air I1S°. The dryness, in a word, was intense beyond 
description, and the heat overpowering. My very eye-lids felt 
scorched and dried up, to say nothing of the dreadful headaches 
which such exertion created. 

The outlet of Kiraueah is at the sea, in lat. 19^ 11' 51" N., 
nearly in the same meridian as the volcano itself. The place is 
called in the native language Pu n ah ala, or " broken in:" in the 
course of fourteen miles of latitude many overflowings have taken 
place; and in some of the deep chasms seventeen layers may be 
counted, between each of which there is a fringed matting of fern- 
bushes. The whole eastern point of Owhyhee from Kalanibala, 
or Heavenly village, through the district of Puna, is one entire 
sheet of lava from the volcano. 

I neit ascended Mowna Roa, and on the Qdth of January suc- 
ceeded in reaching the summit. My last sleeping station on the 
mountain was at tiie elevation of 10,724 feet, and the evening of 
die 28th gave me no view, I vtas above the region of fleecy 
clouds, which appeared like a country covered with snow, and the 
immense cloud wiiich hung over the volcano rose like a tower in 
the centre. Sunset, however, gave a different aspect. The fleecy 
clouds changed their hue to a vapoury tint, and the cloud over 



Foleanoei in the Sandioich hlandt, 339 

the volcano, from an intense silvery brightness which it always has 
in sunshine, deepened its colour, anil gave out a splendid illutni- 
nslion. 'I'hc tlierniometcr fell to 17°; and this to the feelings 
was intensely cold. The next morning the sun rose in great 
beauty, and I caught his upper limb the instant thnt it appeared 
on the horizon ; yet ere his whole disc was visible, the lower limb 
was flattened and ragged. The place where 1 stood was the limit 
of vegetation: all above was an immense dome of lava entirely 
deititute of verdure. Its ascent was gradual; but no words can 
express to you the ruggedness of its surface. The blocks of which 
it is composed are in some places smooth and glassy ; in others 
compact and heavy, like basalt ; in others light and vascular : they 
are of all colours also, and now thrown up in great mounds or 
ridges, or carried away in deep sunken valleys, as though scattered 
by some mighty river. Not twenty yards of the whole ascent can 
be called uniform, and in every direction vent-holes, or mouths, 
are visible, varying in si^e, form, and height. The lava which 
faera issued from them presents abo a novel sight, from some 
fltreams having been pressed forward transversely thus ) ) ) ) ) M ; 

while from others they are fluted longitudinally thus -;;X:>i;^^:^ ; 
and sometimes from the same mouths both kinds seem to have 
issued. Some also form circular masses, others are inflnilely 
varied, and quite beyond my powers of description. 

Walking on the snow early in the morning viaa excellent, but 
afler the sun was two hours up it became very laborious. The 
centre of the dome is very flat: I mean that it has a very slight 
convexity ; for though the day was unusually clear, I did not see 
the sea from the centre. It furnishes a horizon of itself, an im- 
mense elevated table-land,rather than the top of a mountain. The 
highest part is on the north rim, on the east side of the great ter- 
minal crater. The barometer here stood, at S^ 10"" apparent 
time, at JS'T^'J; air and mercury alike SG -> , dew-point 3°-5 : 
the wind strong south-west. The observations were repeated 
four limes with always the same tlsuU The simultaneous 
observations taken at Byron's Bay by Mr. Goodrich will be 
seen in the table annexed; and I value them the more as our 
readings constantly agreed within a very few hundredths of an 
inch. Tlie weather at the sea was clear, with a fresh N.E. trade 
breeze. 

The latitude of the great crater is 19° 27' 4" N., ascertained 
by a satisfactory meridian altitude of the sun. Much rain had 
fallen within the previous fourteen days to my visit, yet the snow 
was three to five feet deep on the summit. Mowna Kaah was 
also covered with snow at this time 1500 feet down; the dome 



I 



I 



I 




340 Volcanoet in the Saadwidi fsloiul*. 

of Mowoft Rob being a lai^r mau, the idow on it slmys de- 
scends lower than oo the sister mouDtuD. 

Magnificent, aa is certainlj the great v<^cano of Kiraiieah, op 
the flanks of Mowna Roa, yet the grand tenninal crater at its 
Bummit is not unworthy of competing with iL It is one of, if not 
the very largest, though not the most active, in the woHd. The 
circumference of the present crater, as nearly aa my circumstaocef 
would allow me to determine it, is about six miles and a quarter ; 
and the line of the ancient and now extinct orifice is not less than 
twenty-four miles round. From the summit to the black ledge in 
the present crater is 1270 feet, and it appears to have filled up 
considerably ; the black ledge is vitrified lava, like that of 
Kiraueab. The northern part appears to have very recently under- 
gone violent action, not by lava boiling up, but by throwing out 
immense stones and scoriK in prodigious heaps, presenting a scene 
of singular devastation. In the bottom of this part of the volcano 
immensely deep chasms are also seen, as though the mountain 
were cleft asunder by them : no bottom could be seen in them, 
nor could any sound be beard when blocks of lava were thrown 
down — probably owing, in some degree, to an iucessant whijzing 
noise which issues from tbcm. 

The southern part of the crater has obviously been the outlet to 
the lava, many successive layers of this, varying in form, colour, 
specific gravity, Scc., being here visible ; but it seems to have 
enjoyed a long state of repose. It is probable that the volcano 
might be entered on this side. I made the attempt, but the nunw' 
rous chasms concealed by the snow, and my want of a companion, 
on whose experience and readiness I could rely, obliged me to 
desist. I may probably succeed another time ; meanwhile 1 have 
even now a most magnificent collection of lava specimens, show- 
ing the successive formations from the sea to the summit, besides 
a princely collection of plants, to show the verdure at diSereul 
heights. 

1 remained one night at the top of the mountun, and suffered 
much from cold, though the thermometer only fell to 17°; also 
from hunger and thirst — all my guides, except one, having either 
refused to accompany me thus far, or deserted me in the course of 
the afternoon. The dip of the magnetic needle at Byron's Bay, 
lat. 19° 43' 42" N., is 45° 2' (V ; at the elevation of 1 1,000 feet, 
in lat. 19° 49* N ., it is 45' C 5" ; and on the summit of Mowna 
Kaah.at 13,851 feet, in lat. 19° 50' l"N., it is 45° CO". The 
intensity and variation I have also found, by many observations, 
consistently the same at all elevations. One thing, however, 
ought to be remarked, which I observed especially at Kiraueali ; 
viz., that the dipping needle and suspension bars for intensity 



Volcanoes in the Sandwich Islands. 341 

were, from time to time, most powerfully affected — riot by coming 
to rest sooner, or by expressing a degree diflereiit from what migbl 
have been expected liad no disturbing cause existed, but by irre- 
gular, jerking, twitching motions; the dip, I'ur example, being 
sometimes 17°, 20°, B0°, and once 10°. The disturbing cause was 
therefore not permanent, but very variable ; and did not arise from 
the accidental presence of any mineral substance, but from a 
tympathy between the magnetical action and (hat going on in the 
crater of the volcano. 

Id like manner, previous to and during earthquakes, 1 have 
observed a manifest disturbance iu the action of the suspendi^it 
bar. For example, on the 19th of February, at Byron's Bay, 
as is my usual practice when time permits, I was making a 
series of observations for the purpose of ascertaining if any diur- 
nal fluctuation exists in the magnetical action, as in that of the 
barometer, when suddenly I found my observations quite irre- 
gular. The barometer stood at S0'042 ; tliermo meter, in the air, 
78° 5' ; and hygrometer, 760. A dead calm prevailed ; the sky 
was slightly overcast by thinly-diffused clouds of a vapoury smoke 
tinge; near the horizon the vault, towards 2 p.m., became ex- 
tremely red, fully equal to the splendour of a setting sun in 
autumn in England; everything, in a word, looked Ihreutening. 
At 4'' 45°' 2', apparent time, we accordingly experienced a dread- 
ful earthquake, which lasted thirteen seconds ; and as you may 
inquire how 1 took the lime exactly, 1 may mention, that fortbe 
space of y 42'' before the shock, its precursors were distinctly felt— 
first, a subterraneous howling noise, which gradually increased, 
and then an awful detonation, which was instantly succeeded by 
the shock, in strong undulations, not a heaving up, from south 
tu north. The number of undulations was great, for the thiitcen 
seconds appeared incredibly long ; and a rustling of Uie leaves of 
the trees, though calm, and in the thatch of the adjoining houses, 
accompanied the noise. The sea receded about a mile, for a few 
minutes ; and a part of the volcano fell in. The ground con- 
tinued to he thus slightly, but sensibly, agitated during the whole 
night; and Mr. Goodrich's house, of wood, rolled like a ship in a 
storm, but did nut fall. The shock was extremely local, and was 
not felt at all at forty miles distant on the opposite side ; while 
others, much milder, have been universally felt. The magnetic 
bar continued greatly agitated through the whole period ; but on 
the ensuing day, the 20th, I obtained consistent observations 
as usual, alike of dip, variation, and intensity. 

This brings to my mind, also, a circumstance connected with 
the action of aurora burealis on the magnetic bar. On the 1 llh 
of May, 1833, in lat. 52" 33' 46" N., long. 122° 31' 33' W., this 
phenomenon occurred with singular beauty and strength for the 




S4S Voteanoet in the Sandvndt liiUmdt. 

talitiide and seuon of the wu ] Rud tfaa bar continued afieoted 
the whole night, exactly as 1 have seen it lince in the volcano of 
Kiniueah. 

It IB ni]f intention to' sail for England by the Arat opportunity ; 
but as this is not likely b> occur till August or September, I aball 
continue to labour at these istands to the best of my abili^. 



Bannuineat Meamnment ofMowna Kaah, Owhykee—Jaimarjf 
I2th, 1BS4. 

Lower Slstiini—Buoiii.39>9ID; Ueie.7l'0°; Dfnr-Poiot 69-0°} Aa7\-V 
Upper Blitiai^ „ lS-354; „ 32'7; „ 0*5; „ 33-7 

Lower Ststiini—Buiimeter 29-910 Uppei Station 18-3&4 

Indn error. . . . +O-0S2 O-OOO 

CuUluT Bcbon . , 4-0-OG3 . . t . . 4-e'063 
CtudtjofcUtem . +0-013 — O-ieS 

^r."4"^';}-«» '""o 

The diffisrSDce ia bdgjbt of the two ttalioiu, computed by Prot>lem XVI. at 
Mr. Francii Bailv's Axtronamical TubUa aQd FotmuliD, and employiDr 
tb« Table p. 183 of that work, <■ l3,S&a 

And computed br the rule gma ia paga 18J atSfr. Daniell'i Heleaialogical 
Enav^ lecoDd edition, in which ■ coneclian it introdncad for the h^gTo- 
metnc alate ofthe atmoipheie, Ibe difierence ii 13^1X1 

WhoDce, 

Height of the lower staiiaaabOTe the eea 83 

Barometer below the aummit at the mountain at the upper ttation ■ • 4 

IXfferGDce in the height oF the italioas, by Mr. Baily's method . . 13,558 

Height of Uowoa Kaah, by Hi. Baily'a method .... 13,643 

Ditto by He. DanieU'e method 13,587 

Baronutrieat MtOMurement of Motona Roa, Owhyhee— January 
29th, 1834. 

LowerStation—Barom. 29-920; Merc.79-0*; Dew-Poinl76-0; Air 79- 0" 
Upper SUtioQ— „ 18-736 „ 36-5 „ 03-6 „ 36*S 

Lower Station— Barometer .... 29'920 UppetSWlion 18-736 

Index error . . . +0-059 0-000 

CapUlary action . + 0-0[i3 +0-063 

Capacily of cislLTQ +0014 —0-159 



Itcductiun 



-0-001 



' True heiiiht of Iht columns! „„ „„„ 

ofmcfcury ntSSTFahr.} ^^-^a 18-639 




VoUanoet in the Sandwi^ Itlaudi. 343 

EDiLrMt 
ns diflbMoce in Iwighl of tha two rtalioiii, etnnputid bj nobUm ZVIi of 
Hi. Fruuu Bftil)''i Aitnmaaiiul Tablei «ad FeimutB, Md gi^leniig 

the T&blc page 183 ef that work, u 13,L47 

And, by Mr. Kuiell'i netbod, in which b introduced a cornefioa for (ba 

)qpgroDwtfle ilate of tba atmMphMe, tb« diftntiM it . , . . 13,093 
Wheoea, ■ 

H^ht abaie the «ea of the lovei itatioD 83 

Diffi^rcnee of itatioiu, b; Mr. Btiy* method 13,147 

Uei|^t of Uowna Boo, by Hi. Biily'i nielbsd 13,230 

Ditto by Hi. Duiiell'* method 13,175 

Barometrical Meaturement o/tke Height of the Volcano of Kiraueak, 
in Owkyhu — January, 1834. 

LowecStalion— Baroiii,Z9'S40i Man.75-0°; Dew-Point 69-0°i Air 75 •0° 

Uppec Btalion— „ 26<20S „ 66-0 „ 43-0 „ 66-0 

I«vec SUtiaB—Batometei .... 29940 UppnBtiitioa 26-206 

liidtseitor . . . +0-0i2 0-DW 

Capniai; action . + 0-063 + 0-063 

Ctpwntyatcklein 4-0*013 ..... >-0-<ua 
BeducliauoTmBi ' 
cury tu temp. 3S 



;j— 0-ni 



True height of the wlnrnnil m.qkj ■ 26-149 

rf meicury at 32° Tahr. J =» "' . 26 149 

By Mr. Buly's method, the height ia . . 3873 ' T Engliab feet 

By Mi. Daoidl'a method .... 3845-9 „ 

Barometrical Meantremenl of the Depth of the Crater cf Kiraueah, 
in Owhykee, February Atk, 1834. 

Aa no umultaneoui Gbseivitloni irere roula, the bolometer wa* read tX, befen 
■tartiDg, and on the return, at the top of the crater, at foUoin: — 

At B>< 2G» A.H. At 4* 07- PJL; 

Barumirfer .... 26-338 UercST* 26-392 Merc. 69° 

Capillary action . . +0-063 +0-063 

CapMily —0-044 — 0*043 

2-6357 Merc. 62° 2 6-313 Hare. 69° 

Usu, '26335; Ueie.6S°5'i Air, the tame. 
At the lower itatioB, in the crater, on the eecond ledga: — 

At 10* 52- A.1L At 0» 0(^ P.Bt. 

Barometer '. . . . 27-368 Jiere. 77'S' 27-358 Merc. 79° 
Capillary action . .+0-063 +0-063* 

Capacity —0-027 -0-027 

27-404 Mere. 7r5| 37-394 Mere. 7?" 

Mean, 37-399; Merc 78° 2&'; Air, the same. 
Computed by Mr. Bally*B method, Ihe diffcreuce in height of the two atatiou 
i* 1096 Knglieh feet 




S44 Volcanoei in ihe Sandwich Idandi. 

The barometer carried to ihe summiti in the above obsem- 
(ions was one made hj Newman, under Captain Sabine's auper- 
intendence. Its capacity is ^ ; capillary action, -f-063 ; and 
neutral point, SQ-ISS. It was tilled m vacuo, and boiled. Ilie 
one on the sea-shore was filled (aot tn vacuo), and boiled hy 
Biyaelf,^ and is of the same dimensions with the other. Its neutral 
point is also the same j but it has an index error of +05i. Both 
appeared <iaite perfect, and the whole column of the one on the 
mountains was exprned, excepting about three inches near the 
neck. Not a speck of residual air could be seen in it even with 
the help of a lens ; it appeared like a polished steel-bar. 

I cannot omit the present occasion of speaking with the highest 
commendation of the repeating reflecting circle with which I 
measured most of my angles. Sea-faring men seem generally 
to dislike this instrument, and complain of its weight ; but, for 
my part, this is rather a recommendation of it tg me — it enables 
me to observe with far more steadiness'. A little practice is perhaps 
necessary to use it with facility ; but it is such a gratification to 
be able lo bring all the operations within the power of one ob- 
ftener, that I think no one, who has overcome the first difficulties, 
will object to any remaining i 



III. — Account of Ihe IiJand and Province of CkUoe. Extracted 
from the Remark Book kept on board U. M. S. Pylades, by 
Captain Blanckley, H.N. MS. 1834. 
The island and province of Chilo^ is the southernmost of those 
which compose the state of Chili, and extends from latitude 
40° 46' S., where, on the continent, it joins with the province of 
Valdivia, to latitude 43° 50' S., where the dependencies of the 
island known by the name of the Archipelayo'of Chiloe tenniuate, 
and which comprise a number of islands extending from latitude 
41° 48' S. to latitude 43° AC S. These islands are to the east- 
ward of Chiloe, and between it and the coast of Patagonia. Out 
of sixty-three islands so situated, thirty-six are inhabited, which 
are enumerated in the annexed table of the different divisions which 
compose the province. The length of the island of Chilofe from 
north to south is about 120 miles; its greatest width, which is 
about the centre, is about OO miles. Thewhoie island is moun- 
tainous and covered with wood, chiefly a bastard cedar, but so 
durable, that ir is exported in great quantities to Peru and Chili, 
where it is used in building, being, from its hardness, not liable to 
lot, and well adapted for beams and rafters. It is also used in 
building vessels in the island. In the interior, to the south-west 
and southward of the lagoon or inlet of Cucao, is situated a large 



Account of the Inland and Province of Chiloe 



345 

freabwater lake, named llie Lake of Campu ; and from the number 
of fresh-water rivulels that run into the sea from all parts of Ihe 
coast, 1 make no doubt, that, were the island better known, xaaay 
such lakes would be lound ; but as yet the interior has never been 
penetrated beyond one league from the coast, (excepting only to 
the lake of Campn. The country is so wooded and overgrown with 
underwood, that it would cost too much labour for the indolent 
and limited population to undertake such an expedition, unless a 
prospect of great gain were offered to them, as the line of coast 
and islands are even more (ban sufficient for the maintenance of the 
few inhabitants. The government (which is very poor) has no 
inducement to explore its interior ; and even the southern coast of 
the island is scarcely known. This is the leason why the soutliem 
ishmdid of the Archipelago, as well as the island of Chiloe itself, 
from about 43° S. latitude, are denominated the end of Christen- 
dom ; and the natives are fully persuaded that part of the island 
is inhabited by cannibals. 1 oftered a considerable reward while 
there, in hopes of persuading persons to explore this district for 
general informatiou ; and the governor and his secretary (the latter 
B native of Sweden, and a scientitic gentleman) used their induence 
to get my otier accepted, but without success. 

The Lagoon of Cucao, on the western coast of the island, is in 
latitude 42° 53' S., and is upwards of seven leagues in length. It 
is surrounded by lofty mountains, and, during the day, from Ihe 
time of sunrise until sunset, is totally inaccessible to vessels, on 
account of the violent gusts of wind which come down from be- 
tween the hills from differeiit quarters at tlie same time, and raise 
ouch a whirlwind as to tear up trees, and would certainly dismast 
or upset any vessel. This continues till the sun has set, when it 
subsides to a perfect calm till the following morning. 

Population and Divisions. — The papulation of Chiloe, and the 
islands attached to it, is 43,83'2 souls. The table which 1 annex 
shows the number of inhabitants in each town and village. The 
island is divided into ten divisions, as follows: — St. Carlos (the 
capital), Careimapo, Chacao, Calbuco, Dalcahue, Quenac, Quin- 
cliao, Castro, Lemuy, Chonchi, each of which has its respective 
court of justice and local governor. There are no subdiviiiiuns, 
except into parishes, which amount to ninety. For electing 
deputies for the Congress, the province and island are divided 
into three departmental divisions : the first comprising St. Carlos, 
Carelmapo, Chacao, and Calbuco ; the second Quinchao, Que- 
nac, and Dalcahue ; the third Castro, Leniuy, and Chonchi. 
Thus three members represent die interests and opinions of the 
province in Congress. The Table, letter A, gives the correct 
state of the population, and of their respective ages and sexes, 
as formed in the year 18J2'; and it will be observed that the sexes. 



I 



I 




346 AaxmtU of ^ Ulaad and Province of Ckilai. 

u Dsari; M possible, equal e«ch other in number, lie anwll 
islands are relabTolj more densely peoi^ed than Chiloe, although 
tha soil is not so productive on them as on the main island ; but 
the reason they are preferred is their not being encumbered bj 
woods, the people bemg in general too mdolent to clear the beat 
land, so long as they can find a sufficiency of what is moderately 
good for their daily subsisteQce without much trouble. They arc 
satisfied with little, and only care for the present. Money is only 
known to them by name ; it is not in circulation. Since the 
supreme decree of January, 182t), which extinguished all animosity 
and feelings of superiority, such as formerly existed between the 
old Spaniards and present nativesi by placing them on equality in 
all civil and public arts, the utmost cordiality baa reigned among 
them. 

JlftUan/ Force. — The military force consists of militia (with tha 
exception of one company of artillery, which is paid by, and b»> 
longs to, the State), and amounts, including infantiy and cavalry, 
to 7459- All inhabitants between the ages of sixteen and fifty 
are enrolled in this militia, and obliged to serve in rotation, or 
when called on by the authorities. They are all supplied with 
arms and ammunition, and are occasionally mustered. Table B 
will show the number of troops provided by the different towns, 
&c., out of the number of militia stated ; — 244 are cavalry, and 
are not furnished by the island, but from Manlio, which is the 
only town belonging to the province on the continent. The 
remainder of the force is furnished by Chilo^ and the islands. 

i^oods.— The principal road in Chiloe is from St. Carlos to 
Castro, which is the second capital, and situated to the S.E, 
Tliis road winds along the sea-coast with a branch leading to Dal- 
cahue, and is eighteen leagues long ; it is called the road of Cay- 
nennuco. It is farmed principally of broad planks and trunks of 
trees, the latter being used where there is an ascent. It was con- 
structed and is kept in repair by the miliua of the eight dbtricts 
which partake, more or leas, of the advantage of such a means of 
communication ; — tbat is to say, a portion of the militia is em- 
ployed in rotation from twelve to twenty days in each year, each 
battalion and company having a part of the* work assigned them, 
for which no remuneration is allowed, by which means this beauti- 
ful road is kept in good repair with little effort, though the ex- 
pense would otherwise amount to a considerable sum, 1000 mea 
being thus employed annually. In the last repairs they com- 
menced placing parapets on the sides of ihis wooden road, and 
they are now building small houses at each station of the different 
battalions which furnish their quota of labourers. Good water is 
to be had along the whole line of road, but nothing iu the way of 
food, except what they carry in their havresacs. In a military 




Acoaimt of the J§hmd and Province of Cluioi. 347 

point of view, this road affords exCelleat plaou for uDbusowka 
and defeniive passei agoinat a tuperior «nemy. 

The road from Carelmapo (on ihe main) to tiie proviaCA of 
Valdivia is much of the same liind as the one just mentioned, and 
ia for twelve or fifteen leagues composed also of plank^ Stc. It is 
less guarded, however, by parapets, and is very inconvenient, 
eipecially during winter, being both excessively muddy and full of 
holes, the same attention not being paid to it as lo the on« on 
the istand. 

The road of Rodeo, along the sea shore from Sl Carlos to 
Castro, deserves only the name of a path, Ii follows the direction 
of the Cayneonuca road, but is more than twice its length ; and 
being nearer the sea-side, it is only passable for travellers, in many 
parts, at low water. Only a small portion of it, also, is plankedi 
Carts or carriages are not used in the island, or even the province^ 
There is but one cart at St. Carlos drawn by oxen, and the roads 
would not admit, at present, of such vebidea. 

jBarboHTB.— Four harbours are acknowledged, by the captain 
of the port, in the island of Chilo^, viz, — Sl Carlos, Cfaacao, 
Palcahue, and Castro ; in all of which vessels of any siza may 
aochor with the greatest safety. In St. Carlos and Castro ships 
ride quite land-locked closa to the shore in good holding-ground : 
the former is on the N.E. side of the island; the latter, as well at 
Dalcabue, on the S.W. ; while Chacao lies to the N.W., a little 
to the eastward of the canal of that name, and is formed by the 
island and continent opposite to it. The navigation of these haiw 
hours is not dangerous, and but little knowledge is required to 
enter any of them. The distances by sea between the ports are 
as follows : — 



From Sl. Carlos to Chacao . 


. 82 Miles 


St. Carlos to Dalcahue 


87 „ 


St. Carlos to Castro . 


119 ., 


Chacao to Dalcahue . 


75 „ 


Oiacao to Castro 


97 „ 


Dalcahue to Castro 


32 „ 



The port of St. Carlos b that which deserves most tbt atteotbn 
of navigators and of maritime nations. The island of Chilo^ has 
always been considered the key of the South American possessions, 
and this secure, beautiful, and capacious harbour ought lo be ita 
primary attraction. It is well known that all the harbours on tha 
coasts of the Pacific are open to the N.W. winds, which, during 
the winter, rage with such fury, on the coasts of Chili and Fern, 
that it is dangerous for vessels to ride in those roadsteads during 
that season. 'I'be beach of Valparaiso in particular annually exhi- 
bits the sad consequences of holding on against a N.W. wind ; and 




348 Account of the Itland and Province o/Chiioe. 

wbeo I wu there the beach preseated wrecks of targe veMcti 
thrown high and dr; man; tathonu above the then water-mark. 
H. M. S. DubliD had rode out one of these galea, but anticipating 
another, lost no time in weighing and running for Coquimbo, 
which latter port 1 should have excepted, as it is certain); a safe 
and secure harbour, though it has some disadvantages from which 
St. Carlos is exempt ; the principal one being, that at Coquimbo 
there is but one narrow eiitrsnce, and should the wind blow direct 
in, no ship can sail. Vessels are thus often detained a week at a 
lime — not to speak of the want of water. I have also at Coquimbo 
witnessed, when anchored not a quarter of a mile from the shore, 
such an unpleasant, short-breaking sea, that it would have been 
impflssible to have got off stores or provisions without injury ; while 
at St. Carlos, during two heav; gales of wind, the sea at our 
anchorage was scarcely ruffled, and we were never prevented com- 
municating with the shore. It was during u gale from the N.W., 
indeed, which blew down many houses, that we completed our 
water at St. Carlos ; and a ship or fleet of any size may equally 
ride there in the greatest seciirity. The best anchorage is between 
Fort Barcacura and Sandy Point. This fort bears about E.N.E., 
true, from Fort Aguy ; and between the two are some rocks just 
above water, called the Puercas, but with five fathoms close to 
them. Our anchorage was about a cable's length from the shore, 
at which distance, to and about the watering place (Sandy Point), 
there are from seven to fourteen fathoms at about the same distance 
from the shore that we anchored. One of the principal advan- 
tages, however, of St. Carlos is, that it has two entrances or outlets. 
Should a fleet or ship be anxious to put to sea during a strong 
N.W. or W.S.W. wind, both being such as will not admit of auy 
vessels sailing by the western entrance (partly from the high sea 
(bat stretches across the bay,' and partly from the strength with 
which the current sets to N.E., and towards Estero de Maulin, 
which Ti attribute to the bottom being uneven ground), in such 
cose there is an easy and safe passage round the northern part of 
the island by the canal of Chacao, and so through the Archipelago 
to the eastward. The captain of the port, an Englishman, who 
has resided there seven years, assured me that it was the safer 
passage of the two, there being no dangers that are not above 
water, and even of these very few. He has thus taken man]) 
vessels - out by this passage, although bound to the northward,, 
during heavy N.W. gales, when it would have been madness to 
have attempted the other passage. Captain Williams is a captaiu 
in the navy of Chili, and, iiaving been bred a sailor, understands 
his business well. Experience has also made him familiar with 
every roclt, bay, and creek in the neighbourhood. 

1 would recommend ships bound to St. Carlos from the west- 



Account of the Island and Province ofChUoe. 349 

ward to enter the Bay, if possible, early in the morning, and keep 
tlie island of Chilo^ close aboard, after making it well to the south' 
ward uf Puiitt Guaban. The tides run so strong, that if yuii get 
out of soundings you may be drifted on the rucks or islands of 
Carelmapo, tvhere there is no anchorage, or even landing for a 
boat; for auch Is the force of the tides, that in the calmest 
weather the sea breaks frightfiillj' against Ihem. Should tiie wind 
fall light, therefore (which it generally does towards the afler- 
ooou), and you tind yonr&elf drifting afi the land to the eastward, 
no time should be lost in anchoring, as from thirteen fathoms you 
suddenly lind no bolloni. In rounding Cape Aguy, vessels should 
keep within a quurter of a mile of it iu from nine to ten fathoms, 
and anchor under the fort of Barcacura, where, as before observed, 
they will be well sheltered from all winds, and close to the water- 
ing place. The ground on the town side is shoal and rocky. 
The small Admiralty plan is, however, generally correct, except 
thai it does not sufiiciently point out a reef lying between Cochinu.i 
and ihe highland above the town uf St. Carlos, called Guihnien, 
near which it is dangerous for a boat to attempt to land, from a 
number of small pointed rocks just under water, which 1 named 
the Needles. Our bearings at anchor in 7i fathoms were — centre 
of Cochiuos N.E, 4 E., Point and Fort Aguy N. | E., Fort 
Barcacura N.W. b. N., Sandy Point W. i S. Beef, poultry, 
wood, and vegetables, are to be had for a tritle, and in abundance ; 
fuel only costs the trouble of cutting, the doing which confers a 
favour on the proprietor of the soil ; and it is close to the beach. 
It will perhaps be proper, however, to mention here, that money 
is not current in the island, but that necessaries are obtained by 
barter ; the principal articles of which are indigo, tea, salt, and a 
mild sort of Cayenne pepper, Indigo is the chief object, as it is 
used for dyeing their cloths for making the South American cloaks, 
called ponchos, which are merely squares of cloth with a slit in 
Uie middle to admit the head, and thus allow the cloak to rest 
on the shoulders. They are made to perfection, and sent to all 
parts of the continent, from the island of Lemuy ; they are gene- 
rally nianufuclured from wool, and almost every cottage has its 
loom. The sheep are bred and kept solely fur the sake of their 
coats, and nothing could induce the inhabitants to part with these 
animals or their lambs. It is needless to add that they never eat 
them. 

The harbours and coast in general abound with all sorts of fisb, 
and among others the finest oysters and other shell-tish. These 
conxlitute, indeed, the chief food of the lower orders, and are 
taken in a manner which I shall here mention, as it is a proof of 
their great abundance. At low-water mark the natives dig out 
a narrow trench iu the sand with a circular basin at its extremity 



I 




350 AeemttU of ike Iiland and Province of Chiloi. 

on the land aide. This the; gtske nearly all round with tmgt 
laid cloM together, and as soon aa the tea reaches its height 
and is about to recede, atalces are driven in the sand at the 
only part left open of the circle, which when left dry is found 
full of fine fish. I witnened this 'operation about a mile firom 
the town on the beach, and it produced as much fish as three men 
could carry away in baskets, the whole the produce of one tide. 
Tobacco is in great request, but as it is a monopoly of govern- 
ment, its price is too high for all classes to purchase, consequently 
oa our arrival a few leaves of this plant were invaluable. Money 
when offered was rejected, from its value not being known ; but 
for a pound of tobacco I actually purchased twelve fowls, three 
bags of potatoes, four dozen eggs, and half a boat load of oysters. 
Candles alio were in great request. I had by me a private letter 
of credit ; and as there were several respectable shopkeepers at 
St: Carlos, among whom was an Englishman, I was anxious to 
gel a bill cashed upon Valparaiso for about 400 dollars, to enable 
me to purchase a few refreshments for the ship's company, which 
their good conduct during the severe cold and tempestuous weather 
we had previously experienced merited ; but although the governor 
gave orders that all the dollars in the town should be collected for 
me, at a great loss and under his responsibility, we could not 
muster above 220. I therefore allowed each man to take up a 
pound of tobacco ; and in a few hours every one was eating his 
poultry, vegetables, and the finest fruit; and as scurvy was, I 
feared, beginning to show itself, I had reason to rejoice at seeing 
our men enjoying themselves with all the dainties they could 
desire. 

The port of St. Carlos is surrounded by fortifications, more 
or less deteriorated ; but some are serviceable, and all at a trilling 
expense might be made efficient. The principal one is Fort 
Aguy. The defence of the port, and it may be said of the archi- 
pelago in general, ought, however, to be confided chiefly to guin 
boats and small vessels, well equipped. These, with a little fore- 
sight and the assistance of a few European articles, might easily 
be constructed at a small expense in the island. The number of 
small coasting- vessels or boats which carry on the traffic among 
the islands and its coast amounts to 1490. 

Climate.—As to the temperature and climate of the province 
of Chiloe, nothing certain can be said, from our limited stay in it ; 
but from the statement of those who have been residents for many 
years, it may be thought rigorous— ^not from excess of cold (for 
water scarcely ever freezes, and what might be called a fall of 
snow is not known,) — but from damp and rains, as on an average 
ten months out of the year may be called rainy. Yet, though 
rigorous, the climate is far from unhealthy; and there are no 



Account of the Inland and Prorince of Chiloe. 351 

peculiar diseases. The people in appearance tire like Northern 
Europeans — tine, manly, alhletic, rubui^t, and fresh' colon red. On 
landing, a stranger is struck indeed with the fair and rosy-looking 
complexions of the inhabitants, particularly of the women and 
children, witb whom light flaxen hair is the prevailing colour. 
Were jt not for the narrow, dirty streets, or rather lanes, and small 
wooden houses, one might even imagine one's self in an English 
village. What speaks much both as to the healthiness of the 
climate and the integrity of its inhabitants, is the circumstance 
that among the whole community there is neither a medical man 
nor a lawyer. An American gentleman of the profession of j'Kscu- 
IsfMUS came to St. Carlos as a practitioner; but finding that he 
was not likely to obtain employment, he gave it up, and turned 
fanner; and when we were there he was living some twenty leagues 
off, cultivating the laud which had been grunted liim grstis by the 
governor. A lawyer they only know by name. A supreme judge 
has been appointed since 18:11 ; but there is no court-house, and 
he told me that since hiii arrival he had not once had occasion to 
use bis calling. There is a prison, and the secretary to the govern- 
ment assured ine that, during the seven years he had been in the 
island, not one person had ever been confined in it. While we 
were there, however, it was tenaikted by lifty galley-slaves sent 
from Valparaiso, as the government did not wish the building to 
be unoccupied ; but the inhabitants were so shocked at these men 
being sent, that they requested the governor would nut allow them 
to go about llie town to sweep the streets, or be employed on 
public buildings, which they were intended to do; otfering rather 
to supply the requisite number of workmen from among them- 
selves without any charge; and they actually built a wall around 
the prison to enable the convicts to take exercise, beyond wiiich 
wall they never appeared. There is not a slave in the island, and 
but one black man, who is considered quite a novelty whenever he 
makes his appearance in the louns. 

Prodactiona. — These consist principally of wheat, barley, po- 
tatoes, all sorts of European vegetables, and fruits, the latter in 
great quantity, as apples and pears. According to the tithes (which 
are always taken in kind), the annual productions amount to 
49.34J fanegas (Spanish) of wheat. 
10.400 ditto of barley. 
S0d,200 ditto of potatoes. 
I n some years as many as ROGO fanegas of wheat have been exported 
from the island ; but this ought not to be considered a general 
part of it* commerce. Wheat only yields from five to seven for 
one. But as an article of exportation in the way of food, potatoes 
ought to be, and might easily be exported to any extent, being very 
abundant, and of excellent quality. Outs and other grain are also 




Sdfi Account of ttu Itland and Promnee of ChUoe. 

produced, but in snull quantities, and only }n a few spots. There 
are abundance of treea, but as tbe different qualities on the island 
have not been ascertained, I could get no account of them. Vast 
quantiues of plank are, however, exported, both of bastard cedar 
and a species of fir, of which planks two feet wide are seat 
out to the amount annually of SS£,777. Near the coast small 
trees are also found which make good span for masting small 
vtssels. For the productions of the soil, and animals, see Table 
D. The soil is rich, though never manured ; it coosials of dark 
mould and fine loam upon chalk: fruit-trees flourish astonish- 
ingly ; and I never saw finer peas, beans, cabbages, or caulidowers. 
The principal beverage is cider made from good apples, and when 
bottled and kept a short time, it is so strong, Uiat a stranger must 
be careful how he indulges in iu It is like champagne, but 
stronger, and of a very fattening quality. I was informed that 
the healthy appearance of the natives was attributed both to the 
climate and the cider. Spirits are not known to the lower orders, 
and seldom can be purchased. Wine is never seen, and the go- 
vernment has placed so high a duty on it that it cannot be pur- 
chased, by which means the morals of the people are presei-ved. 
'I'hey are in general shrewd, clever, and most courteous to strangers. 
They still bear a strong good feeling towards the mother-country, 
and do not despair of again returning under her sway. It will be 
remembered that Chiloe was the last possession held by Spain in 
the Pacific, and in two severe actions defeated and drove the 
patriots off. One expedition, under Lord Cochrane, was repulsed 
with great loss; and the fort of Aguy, with only sixty artiUerymeo 
(old Spaniards), successfully defended itself against his Lordship 
in person with 1500 men. It was at length taken by Admiral Blanco 
and a host of gun-boats, frigates, and sloops; but they would not 
then. have succeeded had not bribery and treachery come to their 
aid. This was seven years ago. Shortly after its capture, several 
attempts were made to retake it by a revolution; and (bey suc- 
ceeded, and sent the miliUry governor and all the regular 
troops off the island. But the mother-country not being able to 
afford them relief, they were induced to accept the terms offered 
them by the government of Chili, viz, to be governed by a civil 
governor from the island, and to protect themselves by their own 
militia, which is their present state. Most of the king's troops 
have remained in the island, and many officers flocked there at the 
disbanding of the king's forces in the other provinces. 

Principal Exports. — These are planks, annually amounting to 
260,908; bama, 7,800; dozensof brooms, 44; hides, 237. The 
value of the above, taken all-fgetlier, may be rated at 24,800 
dollars: besides which, quantities of woollen cloths, such as 
ponchos, are annually exported ; but as every house has its loom 



Account of the lilnnd and Province of Chiloe. 553 

and weaver, no specific eslimiile can be formed of their number 
or value. A woollen poncho is worth from three to ten dollars. 

Chilo^ is tamed in Soutli America for ils hams, which are cer- 
taialy of 6ne <juulity and htgh Havourcd, and would be more so, 
were not so much economy' necessurv in that scarce and valuable 
article, salt. The island swarms with hogs, which are domesti- 
< caied and live generally in the houses ; and it is not unusual to see 
' a pretty woman sitting on a stool with a favourite little pig in lier 
lap ; others will have a lamb or a fowl ; all have sonte pet ; and I 
remarked that the generality of the people are kind tu animals. 
Poultry are in abundance ; ducks were tirst introduced about two 
years since ; and as they are not much approved of for eating, ihey 
h*\-v wonderfully multiplied. 

Clergy, — There are but four rectories, which are those of San 
' Carlos, Calbuco, Acha6, and Castro. I'lie one of ^an Carlos 
' comprehends the districts of San Carlos, Chacao, and Carelmapo, 
I containing seventeen chapels; Calbuco comprehends the district 
, of the same name, and has tifteen chapels; Achat) comprehends 
i the districts of Quinchao, Quenac, and Dalcahue, with twenty-six 
I chapels ; and Castro compreljcnds the districts of Castro, Chonchi, 
I and licmuy, with thirty-two chapels. There are four parochial 
j churches, one in each of the following towns, San Carlos, Calbuco, 
' Achat), and Castro; besides which there are minor churches, one 
in each of the principal towns of the remaining districts; and 
scattered over the island there are, besides those enumerated, 
eighty small temples or temporary chapels, badly built, none of 
ihem possessing any of tlie reijuisites for performing divine worship 
according to tlje Catholic religion ; so that when mass is to be per- 
formed, the priests bring what is required with them. Besides the 
■ above there are two more churches; one of the order of San 
' Jeronimo, at San Carlos; the other which belonged formerly to 
I the Jesuits at Castro ; and there were also two others belonging to 
I the Mendicant order of St. Francisco and La Mercede, but these 

are now a heap of ruins. 

I At present, in the whole province, there are but nine beneficeil 

priests, a vicar and rector of Achai), two rectors of Calbuco and 

I Castro, which are secular, a rector of San Carlos, of the regular 

clergy, and five others. It will be seen that, considering the 

' number of inhabitant^, there is a very unequal proportion of 

clergy, both as lo the number of souls and places of worship. 

Educatiim.-~-\a 1832, the number of schools in the island was 
31, which educated 1271 youths, as will be seen by the Table C. 
There has been, however, a great failing off, both as lo number 
of schools and pupils, for in the year 1829 there existed yo 
schools, which educated 384? boys, 'i'hey belong to the state, 
and tlte masters are paid by the Government, at the rate of 300 



I 



h 



r» 



54 Account of the Island and Province of Chiloe, 



dollars amuially. 13y an onier of Congress, no corporal punish- 
ment should be intlicted, which, however, some of the masters 
assured me was not attended to. 

ChnemmmU Revenuej Sfc. — ^The civil, political, and adminis- 
trative government of the province is exercised by an inteadente 
or civil governor, who is supreme, and by the commander of the 
forces, either in person or by deputies ; the latter governing in their 
respective districts. There is one feature in the government of 
Chilod that does not exist in any other part of the South American 
states. To the southward of the island reside a number of Indii|is, 
who are governed by two caciques, holding their authority from 
the head governor of San Carlos, and 'they rule by their own laws, 
as I understood, with great justice : the Indians are thus seldom 
seen in the towns, and no complaint is ever made against them. 

The expenses of the government depend chiefly on the number 
of the garrisons employed ; and as at present not more than ona 
company of artillery is paid by the state, they are necessarily 
trifling. Perhaps the whole cost of the government, including 
repairs of forts and public buildings, &c., does not at present 
amount to more than from 30,000 to 40,000 dollars a year. 

The principal revenue consists of a tax to the extent of a tenth 
of all produce, which is farmed out annually, and yields from 
8000 to 9000 dollars. As there is no money current, the fanner 
collects die revenue in kind. The export duties amounted in 183£ 
to 1374 dollars and i real (5el.): the import duties amounted to 
fi£76 dollars ; the latter was derived from 26 vessels, foreign and 
national. The revenue of the post-oflice and duties on varioua 
merchandise amounted, in the same year, to 4300 dollars, making 
a duty paid to government, on the exports and imports alone, 
amounting to 49^0 dollars. 

The land in this province, not including that which is not inlwT 
bited, and which may be considered at nine-tenths, is divided into 
numerous small possessions, so that each father of a family b the 
possessor of some portion of the soil ; but there is not an indi* 
vidual in the island who has possession of land of the value of 
1000 dollars, although perhaps it may be some miles in extent; 
and only two or three are valued above 500 dollars. This depre- 
ciation of land is in consequence of the few inhabitants in pro*- 
portion to the soil. In the year 18£99 the government com* 
menced putting in force the laws of the constitution made in June, 
1823, securing to the Indians perpetual and undisturbed posses- 
sion of tlie lands actually possessed by them : to accomplish which 
surveyors are still employed marking out and measuring each 
individuars possessions, and marking out and defining the boun^ 
danes of those lands in portions which have no actual posaessora, 
in order to their being sold for the benefit of the atate. The 




Amnaa «f tha Umd amd Pnwut of Chiiae. SS5 

mtult of ibew operatioiu io the fin dutricts where land bu 
already beea portioned out, viz. Dalcabue, QuenaCi Quinchaoi 
hemuy, and Caitro, has been u follows : — 

No. of SpanUb 

FoateatKina confinned to the Indians , , . 10,765 
Remaining to the State ij002 

Total . . 12,7«7 
The value of the squares of land belonging to the state is esti- 
mated at about ^,000 dollars. 

Mmei. — As yet no mines have been discovered in these islands ; 
but the numerous streams that run into the sea are strongly im- 
pregnated with mineral substances. Some have a copperish taste, 
while others, pure and limpid, appear to be impregnated with 
carbonate of iron. In several parts traces of coal are to be found, 
and i have no doubt that some future period will disclose many 
valuable resources at present unknown. 

Nuiural Hittory. — The island of Chilo^ is well worthy the atten* 
tion of a naturalist or botanist, who would be amply repaid for taking 
a trip to this delightful spot. It abounds in insects, butter6ies, and 
birds, very choice and rare, many not being known in other parts 
of the f»>Dtinent of South America. 1 shall mention one curious 
bird, called in Cfailo^ canguena, which is only to be found here. 
I succeeded in procuring four specimens of it, with the hope of 
iolniduciag them into Eugland. They partake in appearance and 
fomatioa of the duck, goose, guinea fowl, and, in plumage, of the 
partridge (red'legged) and pheasant. In size they are nearest the 
guinea fowl ; and although web-footed, they do not take the water, 
but are constantly dipping their feet in small pools to prevent the 
web of the feet from cracking. Their legs are black, and the 
breast is marked like the red-legged partridge. The belly is of a 
light brown ; the back like a hen pheasant ; while the neck re- 
sembles the guinea fowl, the upper part being marked not unlike 
that bird. The bead, with a black beak, is eiactly that of a 
Bengal gooae, but with a remarkably fine eye. When caught 
young, ibcy are easily domesticated, and live with other poultry. 
Their fleah parukea much of the flavour of the pheasant, but not 
so dj7. Those I procured were given me by the Governor, and 
were taken ftma biu poultry-yard. I lost them one by one during 
a severe illness on my passage home, in consequence of not being 
able Io attend personally, which I previously did, to see that they 
had water twice a day to paddle their feet in. This not having 
been attended to, their webs split, caused sores, and ibey died in 
m few hours. What I regretted also was, that, on my recovery, I 
discovered that, as they died, their skins had been committed to the 
deep. One I hai« brought home, but I fear it is not in so perfect 
2aS 




356 Aceomt of the I^and and Pnmaee t^ ChUoi. 

a state ■■ to give a jurt idea of tlie animal ; it it, however, ia the 
banda of & skilful naturalist. 

Although the coasts of Chiloi abound in sholl-fish, L could not 
procure any shells of value, except a few beautiful chitons, as 
they have here been found. I made ansious search, in the hope 
of tinding one- with nine scales or divisions, but 1 did not succeed, 
although 1 employed several natives in the search, and offered 
a reward of twenty dollars to whoever would bring me one. I 
however got one of seven divisions, which is also rare. When 
the Beagle was here, an officer on board procured one of nine. 
Eight is the most common number. 

Gmeral Society. — liefore taking leave of Cbiloi and its inha- 
bitants, I must add a few remarks as to the general state of so- 
ciety and the good disposition of all classes. Murders, robbery, 
or persons being in debt, are never heard of ; drunkenness is only 
known or seen when European vessels are in port ; not a private 
dwelling in the towns or country has a lock on the doort ; even 
the custom-house is only secured by a padlock, attached by two 
staples fastened on the outside, which might easily be drawn or 
broken : — good faith towards each other is thus a prevailing 
Duality. They have no niarkeU : when an individual has any 
tntng, such as provisions, lo dispose of (and all have their regular 
customers), he goes to his neighbours, and should no person be at 
home, he knows what is required for the inmates, and leaves it, 
paying himself, by barter, in indigo, pepper, salt, Eu., which 
ne knows where to look for ; and as every article of consump- 
tion has its regular value, there is no fear of his acting unfairly, 
or taking more than his due. I have often witnessed people 
arrive from the country with poultry or eggs to dispose of, and 
offer them for sale at the house of the captain of the port. The 
first (|uestion asked is, What do you sell for, annti (indigo) or 
money 1 should the vender answer, for money (which is rare), he 
is sent away; but if for indigo, the scales are produced, and as 
many ounces of that article are weighed out as correspond to the 
value of what is to be purchased, indigo is valued at two reals 
(about ten-pence English) the ounce, and is purchased at Valpil- 
raiso, wholesale, at half that amount. There is also a curious 
I^actice among those from the country who bring milk, butter, 
&c. to the town of St. Carlos. At the extremity of the bay, and 
opposite the town, is a river that runs up about forty miles lo the 
village of Cacotree ; from which they come to Si. Carlos in large 
boats, and their passage is defrayed as follows. The owner of 
tiiese boats may have a few goods to transport, but the boat is too 
large to manage by himself, be therefore places his goods in the 
bottom, cuts a stout twig which he erects as a mast, and prepares 
a smaller one for a yard, which he places across the gunwale. 




Aeanint .0/ the fibnd and Promtae of CkUoi. . 3^7 

PreaetiUj arrive aeveni natives, with their butter, &c. ; diey step 
into the -boat, ■ and deliver at the same time their ponchos or 
cloalu to the owner, who, with a :Jort of rush, laces ibem altoge- 
tbei ; Bud when .he has collected .about, a dozen, they are bent on 
to the yard and nsed' as a ' saiU They then bend Aeir course 
across the bay to St. Carlos ; where, on landing, each retakes bis 
cloflt till the evening, when they return by the same me&ns. This 
is the payment for their passage to and fro. 

The inhabitants are very cheerful, and appear the happiest race 
I erei- beheld. Their amusements, high and low, consist in danc- 
ing to a guitar, always accompanied by the voice ; and, with 
cbicba- and cider ' from apples, they will ' dan^^e for ever. The 
females, almost without exception, sing well ; their figures also 
are good, and, accustomed to dance from their infancy,, they would 
not discredit the beat Kuropeah ball-room! All are passionately 
attached to music ; and it was pleasing to hear some of Rossini's 
b^t op^fes sdng to pianos, of -which ther^ were several in St. 
Carlos, and well performed, both vocally and instni men tally. 

We experienced the greatest possible attention from all classes, 
and each seemed to vie with the other in marking the friendly 
feeling they bore towards us and our nation. The Governor's 
politeness and attention I can never cease to remember ; as also 
the politeness of the chief secretary, Sr. Ferulas, who is a very 
intelligent person, speaking various languages, - He was formerly 
■ecrelary to the present King of Sweden, but was obliged to fly 
his country from political causes. He is, in fact, considered the 
governor of the island, as the actual governor is a native of St. 
Carlos, and was never absent from the island. We parted with 
all oar good friends with much regret. 



Acrmnil of Ihr Ishnfl "nd Pro 



nfChiloe. 






ft* Q 





n 


...S...5,,.i.,:i,; S..:..S:;J.::,5;;:5:: J 5 


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ill 


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i. 

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II 


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iiiiiiiiiiriiriiiiriiifiiniiiii ■ 


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Aenmdtflhe Idumd and Pravimet of ChUoi. 



Showing Iht NunUm- of School* in the lOand of Cftifcc, Me Nvmber 
of YoulhM edttcattd, and when tiluated. 



TowHUdDlTUIaDi 


Wo. of 


No. of 

VooUh. 


B«uik>. 


StCMloi 
Cbmao . 
C«lmapo 
D^lahne 

Cdeubo . 

Um«T . 

Chooclu. 

Cutio. . 

Tat«l 




1 

2 
2 
3 
4 

3 
G 
10 


70 
40 
IIS 
208 
SO 

120 
305 
363 


Om SdM»] >» the uptal (Ht. Culot)- 
One in Chseno, the oUxr Id CsuUb. 

J One in Cudmapo, tbt olhei ia Hwilin (UHet 

I on the continent). 

Tm in Qunu, OM k A1>D, ud onB in Apiu. 

\ ChiM, and Hitflmic. 
Oo. in Chonchi, tni different other pariihn. 
(Theie are liluati-d ia Yntry dtro, Ntiion, 
) PutcmBD, Curague, LUniwn, and QuitgnMo. 


31 


1^71 



Nvmber of Vtuelt, with their Tonnage, tcAtrft have entered the Port of 
St. Carlo* betxeen the Tear* 1827 and 1831. 



V-™. 


National 

VHHh. 


T«aB.,t 


?^t 


TonnaC.. 


TouL 


1827 


15 


1&72 


17 


2588 


32 


1S28 


IS 


2081 


14 


2603 


29 


1829 


27 


3485 


10 


1028 


37 


1830 


19 


3G17 


5 


862 


24 


1831 


IT 


1938 


3 


670 


20 


Total 


. 93 


12.693 


49 


7751 


142 




At»omd of the hidnd and Provmee of ChUoe. 



II 



< -3 a -3 1 ' -t. 
• III ^ 



!l 






I i S ! i § s 



I i S 1 1 i i 






211 



o (3 o .3 6 w o* 



( r>(ie ) 



IV. — Expeditions into the Interior of South Africa. 

Two expeditions, each of great interest, have been sent, within 
the present jear» into the interior of South Africa. One has been 
fitted out under the superintendence of a Committee of Gentle- 
men residing at the Cape of Good Hope, from funds subscribed for 
the purpose chiefly in that colony. The other is sent out by the 
Royal Geographical Society ; and is one of two, for which it has 
obtained the countenance and patronage of His Majesty's Go- 
vernment. 

The scale of these two African ^Expeditions is different, as is, 
in a considerable degree, their object. That from the Cape con- 
sists of a nUtnerous party; well provided with instruments and 
articles of trade ; its object being not so much to penetrate to a 
great distance beyond the limits of the Cape colony (though, 
should circumstances prove favourable, it is not debarred from 
doing this), as to complete the knowledge already gained of the 
more nearly conterminous countries, and thus enable tlie Cape 
merchants more exactly to appreciate their commercial capabilities. 
That from the Geographical Society, on the contrary, consists of 
only one adventurous traveller, Captain Alexander, furnished, 
however, with the means of equipping a suitable party to accom* 
pany him from the Cape ; and his object is purely that of the 
pioneer, to push beyond previous lines, and bnng away such in- 
formation (correct, as far as it goes, but comprehensive rather 
than minute) as may enable other and better appointed travellers 
to follow in his steps. 

In some respects, however, both expeditions are alike. They 
are both chiefly fitted out at private expense ; and while they 
cannot but both benefit science, they may both also prove means 
of extending the commercial relations of the country. This last 
is the avowed object of the first of them ; but it has not less 
weighed with those who have chiefly contributed to organize the 
second. 

The first expedition left the Cape some months ago, under the 
charge and direction of Dr. Smitli, well known in that colony for 
his talents and acquirements. We are thus enabled to add to the 
Copy of his Instructions, which we subjoin, the latest information 
received from him since his departure. Captain Alexander can 
only now be arriving at the Cape ; nor can he even commence his 
ulterior operations till April next. We must, therefore, be con- 
tent with merely inserting his instructions. 




Expt^tioM into tiu InMar of South Africa. 36S 

Iiulnietion) to Dr. Andrevi Smith, (or the) Diractor (Jor the time 
bntigi of the ExfedituM into Central Africa. 

" Six, — In offeriag to you certain geDeral iustnictioiis for the pur- 
pose of elacidatlng their ^ews aa to the object and conduct of the enter- 
prise committed to your direction, the comOiittee of management take 
the earliest opportunity of expressing their confident reliance on your 
teal, talents, uid experience, as of themselves enabling you to appre* 
bend and provide for the proper object and most beneficial detail in 
such an undertaking ; and they therefore expect that you should not 
consider yourself bound by any decision of theirs, to adopt or reject, 
in deference to their opinion, any measurea of which their views at 
present do not coincide with the judgment you may be led to form lU 
your progress. 

" They feel certain, moreover, that any measure which you may 
conceive it necessary to adopt amid the unforeseen occurrences of this 
enterprise, will meet with approbation from the shareholders. As, 
however, amid the incidents to ne considered and provided for as coa- 
tingent, the expedition may be deprived of your services, it is the 
wiab of the committee that the intention and the proper course o( 

Sroceeding, as far as such can be delermined at jiresent, should be 
eflned and rendered familiar to tbe parties composmg the expedition. 
" It is to be hoped that this may be only the Grst of a series of efforts 
prosecuted by the same means, and deriving their support from the 
tame sources ; but the fulfilment of this expectation must evidently 
depend in a great degree on its success. We cannot expect that our 
timited colonial society should feel justified in supporting any measure 
tending to sacrifice iu valuable members and waste its resources, for 
objects solely of contingent and distant benefit, should it happen that 
the consequences of this endeavour confirm the impression of peril 
■ttendant on the view generally taken of it. However wide and pro- 
mising, therefore, may be the views of benefit we entertain as about 
to arise from the knowledge we may gather, or the means and sources 
of commercial and scientific enterprise which the expedition may 
nnveil, these views must be held in subservience to the recollection 
that the unimpeded progress and absolute safety of this one is of 
paramount importance as a guide, model, and inducement toothers: 
this, therefore, is ever to be kept in view, and first considered in all 
its undertakings ; and any measure obviously unsafe, even though its 
advant^es, supposing it successful, should seem to be many and 
eminent, ought to be carefully avoided. While our failure would, by 
its effects on society here, necessarily damp our prospects of future 
benefit, it is to be apprehended that it would also have a disastrous 
influence on the natives to be visited. Even disaster from natural 
causes might diminish the impression of European skill and power; 
and, acting on the excited auperatilion of tlie savage, might quench 
his desire for our intercourse ; and should it arise from the rapacious 
ferocity of the native tribes, it would erect a more serious obstacle to 
foture pn^ess in their gratified appetite for plunder and their jealousy 




S64 Ejpeditumt into thi Jnttridr of South Afika. 

of retaliation. These views should inspire espenal caution in regard 
to every proceedii^, or even verbal inquiry among tribes where it is 
to be suspected that such lamentable inndents have already occurred. 
The impression of its safe advance and return, and of any benefits it 
may confer on those whom it visits, will unquestionably proceed far 
in advance of its presence, and necessarily subdue or weaken those 
obstacles which may at present restrain its proceedings within regions 
where the colonial influence may be in some respects considered as 
overlooking its movements and \vatching for its safety. 

" Out inquiries lead us to anticipate that the natives of the interior 
districts adjoining this colony are generally disposed to welcome the 
approach of travellers, and to treat them reiipectfuUy ; lest, however, 
the opportunity of easily acquiring by plunder wbat they exceedingly 
covet should prove too tempting for their respect or caution, it is 
reqnisite that such an apparent preparation to repel assault should, be 
preserved as may render it obviously perilous to the assailants ; sepa- 
ration of the party must therefore be avoided when holding inter- 
course with them, and if a division should be unavoidable, the main 
body must be kept in sufficient strength, and held in readiness to aid 
the detachments or serve as a refuge for them. It will best accord 
with the object of the expedition, that not only every reasonable pro- 
bability of avoiding collision should be shunned, but that all scenes 
and situations ofFenng any likelihood of its occurrence should be well 
exumined before they are approached. 

" Ic will be inconsistent with any beneficial result, that, in its pro- 
gress outwards, the expedition should force its way through the 
territory of any tribe disposed to resist it; if no persuasive means be 
found of avail to overcome their repugnance, the advance in that 
direction must cease : it is only in case of the party being itself at- 
tacked, or being beset by a force showing an obvious disposition to 
assail it, and a determination to oppose its progress in any direction, 
or in case of the defiles of a territory being occupied and closed 
against its return, that the committee can reckon it justifiable' to ex- 
ercise upon the lives or persons of the nstivea those formidable means 
of warfare vi-ith which the expedition has been furnished. It will be 
proper that each individual attached to the expedition should have a 
determinate station, in which it is expected that he shall be found in 
cases of emergency ; and it will be well that the measures necessary 
to be adopted should be fully illustrated and impressed upon all by 
such previous training as circumstances may admit of. 

" In regard to the territory the expedition is to visit, there are two 
methods in which it may arrive at beneficial results : it may either 
■weep rapidly over a great length of country, with the object of 
attaining the most distant point which the time allotted to it or the 
duration of its resources may enable it to reach ; or it may leisurely 
examine in detail, throughout its length and breadth, the condition, 
capabilities, and productions of a district of more manageable dimen- 
sions. The committee conceives that the former might be perhaps 
the more interesting method of proceeding, on account of the greater 




Ei^tdtHoM mto Hie Intmor of Souih Africa. S65 

probalnlity of romindc peril. idTentun, or diMoveiy ; but that thete 
Tcr^ droumatuiceB of greater nDCeitunty and danger do, in thii case, 
prednde oar aiming at the comparativel]' barren honour of eicitibg 
ivonder, and of throwing a partial and obscure light on an extendM 
r^on. The committee therefore asanmea that the lait-mentioned at 
the two cooraeB ia, in all respects, more accordant with the views 
and interests of the subscribers, u expressed in the prospectus ; 
and it therefore recommends that no endeavour be made to penetrate 
beyond the parallel of S0° south latitude, and that the attempt to 
reach that parallel be made only if, in the first place, circumstances 
fiiTour it greatly, and, secondly, if the intervening districts do not 
affiird objects of sufficient interest and importance to occupy the 
attention of the expedition. The territory limited by that boundary 
is about four times the extent of the British Islands. It is in truth 
to be anticipated that the wide regions between the Cape territory 
and the Sonthern Tropic will have sufficient extent and variety for the 
lime and resources to be employed in our present undertaking. It 
will, therefore, be advisable that the expedition consider Klaar Water 
(Griqua Town), or LAttakoo, as the starting point or base of their 
operations, and that its first effort be the examination of the district 
from which issue the northern branches of the Gariep and the streams 
which &I1 down to the Indian Ocean : that then the dividing ridge be 
traced towards the north, leaving it to the discretim of the director 
to determine at what parallel he should change his course, to the 
north or west. Our present information leads us to esteem it ad- 
visable that the eastern side of the slope be examined first, in order 
that if the great desert of Challahenga should extend far to the east- 
ward, so as to bar the progress of the expedition towards the centre 
of the condnent, there may remain the unexplored territory along 
the western slope to occupy its attention in returning. Much of the 
nltimate importance and interest, as weU as the security of guidance 
and prospect of safe return of the expedition, will of course depend 
on obtaining an exact knowledge and preserving a faithful record of 
its route, which can only be done by the aid of astronomical obser- 
Tations made with due rraularity and precaution, not only at such 
stations as form the most interesting features at the moment, in the 
eyes of those concerned, but at every station where the expedition 
may rest long enough to permit obaervationi to be taken deliberately, 
and with due n^ard to safety both of the observer and instruments. 
The track of a caravan on land, as of s ship at sea, is defined as 
well by the less as the more remarkable points through which it 
passes, and it may very easily happen that stations of the highest 
interest in a commercial, political, or physical point of view, may, by 
reason of that very interest, be inappropriate for aelection m prin- 
cipal observing stations, either from the attention of every individual 
being distracted to duties of immediate necessity, or from the risk 
attending ttie exhibition of instruments in the unavoidable presence 
of a mde, curious, and suspicious population. In all such cases it 
will be proper to connect, by observations of a less elaborate nature. 




966 EtptditiaminiaAt hUmor ^ SouSi AJUea. 

tbow ttatioM witb otlwn not fu distant, w\aA, ■Ithoi^b laM Intrtn- 
•ically important, may be euicr ^ «uct dat«rmuiation. The oom- 
mittee would thsrefon recomnMnd, tbtt atationi of obaamtion be 
cUsMd MBither primary wKCondofy.- tbose to b« connderad primarj 
•tatioai whenever the circunMtances may appear particularly favour^ 
able, by reaioD of leirare from other occupations, expected dnrstiaa 
of halt, and freedom ftom annoyance, to afford a gooi dotennination 
of the longitude and latitude, luch aa may aerra to render them uwful 
for zero pointi, to which the secondary stains may be referred, 
either by dead reckoning of time and distance or by SQch lees elabo- 
rate observations as can be obtained at the iecnndary itations thetn- 
aelves. Of course, however, should circumstances permit, the more 
important in other respects the point whicfa can be made a primary 
observing station the better, and the committee would espreasly 
notice Griqua Town, lAttakoo, Kurrechaos, and MeletU, as poiota 
of which the geographical position should be determined with care by 
observations on the spot, and the observations then made transmitted 
home along with the latest communications with the colony. Since, 
however, the circumstsncee which may render stations objectionable 
as primary points are mostly of a moral or political nature, it is ex- 
pected that no great difficulty will occur in fixing them at positions 
of especial geographical interest, as at the confluence of rivers, at 
the extreme borders or ou the culminating points of monntain rangeii, 
on remarkable rocks, &c., or at least of determining their bearings 
and relative situations with respect to such prominent features, with 
•ome degree of exactness. A combination of circumstances of this 
kind of local interest will of course have its due weight in determining 
{ealerit paribuM) the halt of the expedition. 

" At primary stations the committee recommend the assiduous ap- 
plication of every instrumental means for the determination of the 
three elements of latitude, longitude, and elevation above the level 
of the sea; and especially, at such stations, as many series of lunar 
distances u possible should be procured in addition to the usual sights 
for time, (or observations of the altitudes of heavenly bodies near 
the prime vertical,) which, together with meridian observations for 
the latitude, they would recommend to be practised daily as a matter 
of regular duty, at every station, as well primary as secondary. At 
primary stations also the barometer and thermometer should be ob- 
served at r^ular intervals, and the magnetic variation ascertained 
by taking the tun't admutk immediately before and after the obmrvation 
for tinu- — inotinij the exact womenlt, and Ihut obtaining data for inter- 
polaling to the time of abiervation). At such stations likewise a careful 
investigation of the index errors of sextants should be made, the 
X«ro points or index corrections of the sympiesometer should be de- 
termined by leisurely comparison with tlie mountain barometer, 
(giving time for the instruments to attain the same temperature,) 
and the dtSerence noted in the 'observation -books. The necessity of 
frequent componsons of these instruments will be apparent if it be 
considered that in the event of fracture of the barometer tube, no 




Sifeditimu Mo Uu ItOmtr </ South Afiiea. 907 

other Tnium will matt hj which the uro pnnt of a aaw one cso ba 
dvtarmined. OccultstiODa of lUn by the moon, and, if potrible, 
•cUpMi of the uteUiteg of Jupiter, aboald be obierved vhenever an 
opportunity may occur. The former etpecially, affording the best 
kmowa madiod ^ atcertainin^ the longitude by a single oMenratioDt 
thoiild be Gonatantly bonie in mind, and the almanac consulted several 
days in advance, so that no occultation of a large star certainljr iden- 
tifiable >bould be allowed to escape through inadvertence. 

"The committee especially recommend that every obaervadon 
made should be registered in a book devoted to that purpose, and 
preserved in tht exact lernu of the reading* off of Ike irulrtmunU and 
eknuumtltrt, and kept rigorously separate in iti statement from any 
calculation thereon grounded, and that the observed or presumed 
index or aero corrections, whether of chronometer, sextant, baro* 
meter, or other instrument, sboukl be stated separately in every case, 
and on no account incorporated with observed quantities, and, more- 
over, that the observations upon which such index errors have been 
coacladed should also he preserved. Since, however, the guidance 
of the expedition will necessitate the calculation of many obeerva- 
tioDs on the spot, the results of such calculations should be entered 
(ai socb) beaids the observation from which tbey have been con- 
clnded. 

** The committee further recommend, that the chrooometere with 
which the expedidon has been provided by the liberality of his Ma- 
jesty's Goveniment should on no account be corrected by moving the 
hands, however great their errors may become, not even in the ex- 
treme case of one or both of them having been allowed to run down. 
In case of such a misfortune (which should be most carefully guarded 
against, by making it the daily duty of more than one person to re- 
mud their bearers to wind them at a stated hour) it will be most 
convenient in place of setting them, to defer winding them until the 
hours and minutes come round, at which they may respectively have 
stopped, as near as may be ascertained from one to the other, or from 
both, to other watches of the party, and such event, should it take 
filace, should be conspicuously noted in the observatioo-book ; and, 
as a further and useful precaution, it is recommended to keep some 
of the beakgoiDg watches belonging to individuals of the expeditioa 
to maao Greenwich time, by frequent comparison with one of the 
chroaometera. In every case where time is observed, express men> 
lion should be made of the chronwneter or other watch employed, 
deuguUiog it by the maker's name and number, so that no uncer- 
taioty may ever arise as to the proper application of the correoiion 
for error and rate. 

" The rates of the chronometers should be examined at any station 
where the expeditiMi may rest two or more consecutive nighu. either 
by equal alti^ea of a star, or more simply by noticing the disappear- 
ance of any large fixed star from the same exact point of view, behind 
the edge of a board fixed at some considerable distance in the horizon, 
and having Us edge adjusted to a vertical position by a plumb-line; 
the intern! between the two tuck disappearances being an exact 




368 B^etUUmu mio At Intmer o/Smilk AJriea. 

ndoretl dty, or SS h. AS m. i tea mun time. Uiul« tiie hoftd of uoon- 
dary obaerring itBtiooi may be clused tfaoBe in which no Innu dit- 
tancea can be got, and when the sights for time and meridian altiuide 
can only be superficially and imperfectly taken, or one irithout the 
other. With a view to the connexion of theie with the primary 
Station, and to the sketching out a chart of the country passed throogb, 
at every primary station a series of angles should be taken with the 
sextant between remarkable and weU-defined points in the horizon, 
diriding the horizon into convetiient portions, and carrying the angles 
all round the circle hack to the point of departure: and in the selec- 
tion of such points two ends should be kept in view, first, the precise 
identification of the point of observation, in case of ite being desirable 
to find it again ; and, secondly, the determination from it of geogra- 
phical points. The first of these purposes will require angles to be 
taken between near, the second between ditlarU objects. For the 
latter, of course, remarkable mountain peaks will, if possible, be 
chosen. Of such, when once observed, the ap5>earances from the 

Slace of observation should be projected by the Camera Ludda, and 
leir changes of aspect and form, as the expedition advances, should 
be well and carefiilly noticed, to avoid mistakes. The approximate 
distance of any remarkable object may be had by pacing, or otherwise 
measuring more exactly, a base line of a few hundred paces, in a 
direction perpendicular to that in which it appeara, erecting a staff 
at each end, and from each staff measuring the angle between the 
object and the other staff. 

*' In this manner the neighbourhood of any station may be mapped 
down so es to be available for many useful purposes. In all such 
cases the compass hearings of the most important object in the horizon 
should be taken, and in the absence of the sextant angles, azimuth 
compass readings of each point may be substituted, though of course 
Kith less precision. 

. " Indications of the progress of the expedition should he left at 
various points in its course, by making marks on rocks or stones, &c. 
and by burying documents in bottles. In regard to the latter, it will 
he necessary to deposit them one foot deep at some known distance, 
say fifteen feet from a conspicnoua surface of stone, on which there 
is painted a circle containing the distance and bearing by compass of 
the bottle, from its centre, and that the situation of such places of 
deposit should also be ascertained by exact compass bearings of se- 
veral remarkable points in the horizon, both near and distant, as well 
as by angles between them, carefully determined with a sextant, and 
noted down in the journals of the expedition for their own reference 
or that of future travellers. 

*' In surveying the basin of a river, or in proceeding along the 
prevailing slope of a country, it is very desirable to determine as 
many points as possible on the same level, and form thus as it were a 
parallel of elevation to the level of the sea. A line of this kind traced 
at the altitude of, say 1000 feet, would determine in a considerable 
degree the physical condition of extensive spaces on the map on both 
sides of it. The stations of most interest will be found at the extre- 



ExpediUonx inlo the Interior nf South Africa. SiJQ 

rahies of transverse arms of the ridge, or in the central and most 
retiring points of the intervening spaces. Let the general slope of 
the country on both sides of such stations, be noted as to its rate and 
direction ; and in regard to the valleys which intersect the slope, let 
their width, direction, and general rate of declivity, and the section 
a,nd velocity of their streams, be ascertained, and the probable course 
of the rivers, as far as it can be determined by the appearance of tlie 
country and the reports of the natives, giving them the aboriginal 
names when they can be discovered. The altitude and acclivity of 
remarkable peaks or ridges should also be investigated, along with 
the nature of their climate and of the clouds formed upon them. It 
will be requisite also to mark with care the nature of the winds and 
sky as well as the temperature at stations in the neighbourhood, and 
to note the influence which changes of that description have upon the 
barometer, and observe also the temperature of deep pools or lakes 
■nd copious springs. 

" The geological structure of the country is especially worthy of 
minute and extended observation, and ivill require that notes be kept 
of all such appearances as indicate or accompany changes of structure 
in the formation, or of components in the soil and surface, especially 
such fossil remains of plants or animals as may occur, and metallic 
ores, and that proper specimens accompany these notes, ticketed on 
the spot with precise localities. 

" The botanical researches of the expedition will extend to Ihe 
preservation of specimens of plants not found in the colony, and 
especially of transportable roots, and the seeds of all such as may be 
found in a ripened state, noting localities and the varieties of aspect 
which vegetation puts on in different situations. In regard to 
other branches of natural history, as it is obvious that after a short 
experience of research under your direction, almost eveiy one will 
be able to recognise and preserve what is rare or novel, no further 
instruction need be given, except the general expre.ssion of the 
desire of the committee that all shall endeavour to secure for the 
expedition whatever in any department they esteem valuable, it being 
expressly understood that every article collected hy each individual 
belongs in property to the subscribers to the expedition collectively. 

" In regard to the inhabitants themselves, it is of paramount in- 
terest to gain an exact portrait of their life as respects their condition, 
arts, and policy, their language, their external appearance, popula- 
tion, origin, and relation to other tribes, or in general whatever tends 
to elucidate their disposition, or resources, as sharers or agents in 
commerce, or their preparation to receive ChiisUanity. 

" It will be proper to ascertain their religious traditions or prac- 
tices, if they have any, distinguishing what is indigenous from the 
glimmering apprehension of great religious truths which necessarily 
spreads in advance of the scenes of missionary lal>our. 

" Examine also the state of their intellect generally, as exemplified 
in their social and political arrangements and common traditions, 
sDDgs, or amusements, and particularly in regard to their knowledge 

VOL. IV. 2 B 



I 




370 Exptd^oiu vOoHu Interior of SomAJ^riea, 

of' nattm, ind their notioBB of its ntt mi nuM pr oea xHiig a, u 
thunder, nio, irindt &c 

" Inqniriei resp«oting cramwreo, and the prospect of its o^t^wrTi i, 
uc to be viewed as of no smiU inportuwa in tin nadertakingv 
Etct; metna most be nsed to ascartun its present nstora. dianaels, 
tnd extent, and to determine iJm existii^ dcmmd far far ^ (B j*— ^ 
dities, and the retain which nay b« e a pect e d far them. Proper in. 
qairiea may alto lead to some satiiEacbsy Tiews of its fatare eoodi- 
tion, as indicated by the wants of Hm native population, or the ol^eeta 
of most importance to improve thnr condition, and die correspoHUnr 
resources for exchange iriiich may arise from a num beneficial em* 
ployment of their industry. 

" lastly, we may notice the propriety of making inqmries or g»< 
thering information with respect to nmilar enterprises, as wliedier 
the natives have traditions of movements of their own, or of tha 
arriral of strsngers among them. All that can be gathered respect- 
ii^ Dr. Cowan's expedition will be acceptable in the highest d^pwe. 
The eluddatioa of an isolated effort to straggle through tha diffi- 
culties of Airican travelliiig should also be kept in view; it was 
made by a missionary of the name of Martin, who has not been beaid 
of since he crossed the colonial boundary in December, 1831. He is 
consequently supposed to have perished in the Gariep, or to have 
been destroyed on its banks, though as it was his intention to avoid 
the establishments of Europeans or their lines of conunnnications, 
there is a lingeiing possibility of his still surviving. 

" The articles fitted for carryii^ on ctHumerce with the natives 
have three distinct objects ; — First, by keeping up a constant appear- 
ance of traffick, to present in their eyes an appreciable motive for 
this visit to their territory ; second, to conciliate favour, or to pro- 
cure provisions for the purpose of husbanding the resources of the 
expedition ; and third, for the purpose of procuring any profitable 
articles to carry on to the other districts for die ends abovementioiied, 
or to sell in tiie colony at the termination of the enterprise. In 
regard to these the Committee has to remark, that attention to the 
two ftrst-meotioned objects ia indispensable, from its necessary con- 
nexion with the safety and efficiency of the expedition, and that the 
third is to be contingent on the acquisitions of the party in rq^d to 
its main object of collecting infonnatian as to the conntry, and securing' 
what illustrates its natural hiatory and resoorcea, and on the state of 
its means of transport. The Committee therefore recommend that 
this third object be attended to only in case that it be necessary to 
send waggons back for supplies, or in case that in tiie homeward pro- 
gresa of the party there be room for such articles without incom- 
moding it in its other operations. 
(Signed) Thomas Wads, Chaishan, A. J. Cloete, 

J, Hebschell, C. F. H, vow Lonwio, 

A, Oliphant, F. S WATBBiiaTKH, 

Jambs Adamson, D.D. Johk Centlivrbs Chasi, 

T. M'Leae, Han. Secretary. 

June 23rd, IS34. 



Expeditimix info the Interior of South Africa. 37 1 

Report of the Committee of Mantyement of Ike Cin>f. of Good Hope 
Assodalion for oxplorittg Cerdral Africa. 

Thb Committee has much pleasure in aimouncing to the Siib- 
scribers, the recept of despatehes from Dr. A. Smith, dated the 23d 
of September 183+. at Caledon River. 

From these documents it appears that the journey from GraafT 
Reinet to the frontier of the colony, was attended with much hin- 
drance and trouble, owing to the severe drovght which has lon^ been 
experienced in that part of the country, and, it is understood, has 
extended very far beyond the colonial boundary. 

Upon the arrival of the exploratory party at Philipolis, a missionary 
station belonging to the London Society, and the assumed capital of 
the Griqua chief, Adam Kok. situated about tiventy-live miles to the 
north of the Nu-Gariep or Black (Orange) River, Dr. Smith, from 
the information he there obtained, decided upon taking an easterly 
route, as the only one at that period practicable, the drought prevent- 
ing a safe access, %vith ox waggons, to the Bechuana town of Latakoo, 
on the Kuruman River, which it had been proposed to make the start- 
in? point of the expedition. 

md, however, this difficulty not intervened, Dr. Smith considers 
it highly probable that he should have decided to adopt his present 
intended route, inasmuch as it is extremely desirable that the district 
between the two principal branches of the Orange River should be 
investigated, not only from its contiguity to the colony, but from the 
promise it holds out of very considerable and interesting additions to 
our scientific knowledge. 

The party, therefore, thirty in number, were to cross the Caledon 
River on the day subsequent to the date of the despatches, for the 
purpose of tracing up, in the firsl place, the country aimated between 
theCaledonand Stockenstrom Rivers to their respective sources, thence 
to explore the origin of the Mapoota River, which it is believed takes 
its rise eastwardly of the same Highlands, and falls into De La CJoa 
Bay ; and having completed that survey, to stretch across the country 
westward to the Ky-Gariep or Yellow (Orange) River, following it 
down to its confluence with the Hart or Malalareen, somewhere 
about lat. 28° 10', long. 24° 35', and where they would arrive and 
communicate with the colony "ia Philipolis, in the month of De- 
cember. At this point it was intended to ascertain from the Rev. 
Mr. Moffatt, the intelligent missionary at Latakoo, the_ state of the 
country northward, and the prospects of the expedition; to bring 
together the stores laid op in reserve at Philipolis ; and there finally 
to arrange the route of the party for its northerly destination, which 
it was expected would then be open in consequence of the periodical 
fall of rains, which would render the country traversable by oxen. 

In the prosecution of the preparatory excuraon eastward, Dr. Smith 
anticipated much interest and gratification. By native testimony he 
was assured that the wide Caledon issued at once a perfect river, from 
i spring, on the side of a high mountain, where it was 




373 Ei^aeditions into the Interior of South Africa. 

nearly as large aa at the place where he was then encamped ; the 
probability of which singular circntnitance may be credited, from the 
fact that the river at New Latakoo, the Kuruman, gushes, in like 
manner, from its rocky fount, a noble stream, and is at no part 
of its subsequent course of greater size. His route lay first to Mas- 
BQB, king of the Basuta tribe of Bechuanas ; thence to the once for- 
midable, but now subdued Mantatees ; and after that to the Kraal of 
a large, but little known, tribe, where twenty-five diiefe were reported 
to reside. He was in the immediate vicinity of the Agate Hills, 
which supply the Orange River with those well known and beautifiil 
gems, and he bad reason to believe that he would be able to inves- 
tigate the porphyritic formations of its sources, of which so many 
splendid specimens strew the course of that stream. There was also 
considerable prospect of a lai^e supply of ivory obtainable in this 
route, as a return for the trading part of this expedition. 

The following mecooranda of tiie acquirements of the expedition 
ore attached to the despatch : — 

About three hundred and fifty specimens of birds, quadrupeds, &c., 
have been preserved. 

Fifty drawings have been completed. 

The history of three Bechuana tribes, viz. : Batlapee, Barralong, 
and Baclarou have been minutely investigated. 

A map of the route from Philipolis to the Caledon River, has been 
constructed. 

The latitude and longitude of eleven stations have been ascertuned ; 
— the geological characters of the country, between Graaff-Reinet 
and this station, have been minutely investigated ; numerous spe- 
dmens of rocks have been collected ; and the heights of many of 
the mountains and hills, both within and beyond the colony, amongst 
others, the Compass Berg, have been taken. 

ImtTudiam addressed to Captain Alexander. 
*' Sis, — The council of the Royal Geographical Society of Iiondon 

having intrusted to you the conduct of an eipediiion of discovery in 
South Africa, furnish you with the following instructions relating to 
it, confining themselves therein to the more important and essential 
conditions of the undertaking, and leaving the minor arrangements to 
your own discretion. They will, however, transmit to you hereafter 
such memoranda and notes of infoi-mation, or advice, as may seem 
likely to be useful for your further guidance. 

"The interval of seven or eight months which will be spent in the 
voyage out, or in residing at the Cape, may be advantageously era- 
ployed in acquiring expertness in the use of the astronomical and 
Other instruments, and in studying the Sichuana language. 

"It is hoped that you will be conveyed in one of his Majesty's 
ships of war to Dalagoa Bay, where it is not desirable that you 
should an-ive before the termination of the rains, or the beginning of 
May \fi$b. 



Expeditions into the Interior of South Africa. 373 

The general object of the proposed Gxj)edLtlon, is to explore the 
Tiver Manice,' which flows iuto Dalagoa Buy, (and wliich is named 
by the English King George's River, by the Portuguese and other 
Dations Rio del Espiritu Santo), so as to ascertain whether or not it 
be identical with the river of the interior wliich the Bechuaua call the 
Uariqua. 

"The furthest point of this river explored by Captain Owen, 
ia in lat. 25° 81' lo" S,, and about long. 32" Si' E.; being about fifty 
miles from the mouth along its course, but not more than eight from 
Ihe nearest point of the sea'shore. It may, therefore, be advisable 
to land on the coast in about lat. S!s° 27' S,, and then to strike in 
towards the river, so as to avoid the labour of making up against ihe 
Btream, as well as abridge materially that part of the journey which 
would conduct through a low alluvial soil. 

"On your arrival in the bay, your first care wil! be to select a 
guide and interpreter, from among the chiefs if possible : this business, 
with the procuring of bulloclcs to carry your baggage, the choice of a 
place of debarkation, &c., may occasion a delay of a few days ; but promp- 
titode in the selection of your plans, which nill materially result from 
previoua diiigence in collectii^ infurmatioD, ttod the moat despatcli- 
fnl execution of them, consistent with prudence, are especially recom- 
mended to you, as delay on the coast is likely to give rise to numerous 
unforeseen difficulties. 

•'The most northern point of the river Mariqua seen bv Messrs. 
Scoon and Leckie, is, probably, in lat. 24° 50' S., long. 28° 30' E., 
and, consequently, about 300 miles in a straight line from the far- 
thest explored point of the Manice. If the former of these rivers 
communicates with the latter, the unexplored portion of the con- 
nected stream may possibly forma circuitous course of 360 miles, 
or six weeks' journey ; but how far it may be advisable to shorten the 
Fonte by leaving the circuits of the river, and proceeding directly to 
its upper reaches, as they may be indicated by the natives, will be 
best determined by the circumstances which arise in your progress. 
It would, indeed, be highly desirable to learn the character of the 
river, and to what extent and in what manner it is navigable ; but this 
consideration must be held subordinate to that of safety, in providing 
for which, it will, perhaps, be found expedient to follow the most 
frequented routes, and the line of densest population. The Mariqua 
once reached, the difficulties of the journey may be considered over- 
come, and a few days' march southward will conduct to a missionary 
station. 

" The council expect that I'ou will keep an exact register of all 
astronomical and meteorological observations, and that you will note 
carefully the variations of the compass, and the bearings and esti- 
mated distances of every remarkable object in view. 

" In your intercourse with the natives, you are recommended lo 
maintain a deportment at once resolute uod confiding, to avoid asso- 
ciating wilJi any but chiefs, and to accept, and even press them to an 
exercise of that hospitality which they regard as a moral obligation. 




: m ^ <CUr a W : 



, x-im Cmk, V 3Mt- 



'S^pn'. V K Cjuiz:. Sm. ^tc. 







-• 1^ -Aiud wbll ■.!<« Ami 



Navigation of the Euphrates. 375 

The author of the Paper in question now willingly admits 
that he mistook Colonel Cheane^'s expressions, in his Reports, 
regarding the extent of his personal examination of the river; and 
he authorizes the insertion of the following, which are his owq 
words in the comaiunication adverted to, in order to correct that 
mtatake : — " My first examination," says Colonel Chesney, " com- 
meaced at El Kaim Tower, and extended thence to the sea, a 
distance of 900 miles. My eecond journey (see pp. fil, 02) took 
in the sources of the Euphrates, and a considerable part of its 
course above and below Bir ; as well as the ports of the Medi- 
terraaean, and the country between them and the river. So that 
the only portion not actually examined by me is the small space 
between the bend at Giabar and El Kaim Tower." 

But while Mr. I^ong is thus willing to rectify any mistakes 
into which he may have fallen regarding matters of fact, he is 
more tenacious of his accompanying criticisms. lie thinks it 
almost unnecessary to deny that in writing the article in question 
he had any bias against Colonel Chesney ; on the contrary, he 
regarded him then, and regards him still, as every geographer must 
regard the intrepid traveller who exposes himself to a thousand 
forms of danger to increase the means by which geography may 
be improved. But he cannot waive his right to compare new 
statements with old ones, whatever their respective authority, and 
to draw such conclusions from the comparisan as may seem to 
him best founded : and though, were he to write the article now, 
with his better means of information, he nii<>:ht modify some of his 
conclusions, aud revise the expression of them, yet his opinions 
on most of the points at issue remain substantially ilie same; 
aud he thinks that a more careful comparison of the text of the 
old authors with the existing localities will yet convert Colonel 
Chesney himself at least to some of them. 

We desire, moreover, ourselves to testify that so little was Mr. 
Long aware, when he sent his paper to the Journal, that it con- 
tained mailer of offence, it was his particular wish that it should 
be communicated to Colonel Chesney before publication; which 
was only prevented by that officer's absence ill Ireland. But we 
trust that enough is now said to satisfy all parties. 

The expedition will sail, within the present month, in the George 
Canning, of Liverpool ; which is chartered to convey it to Scan- 
derooii, whence it is hoped that the iron-boats, and other materiel, 
may be transported without much difficulty across the Desert, 
Rut if, from the political state of the country, or other unexpected 
obstacles, this is found impossible, the same ship is under articles 
to re-embark the party, and carry them direct to Bombay. 



k 




C 376 ) 

\i.— Altitude* ofPlaeetmKumam. By C^. W. S. WeW). E.I.C.S. 

A List of Latitude!, Longitudes, and Altitudes of many Plaeea in Eamaoui 
has appeared in the 'A^atic Besearchea,' presented to the Society by 
Lord Hastings, for n horn a short Memoir of the Survey was drawn np in 
1817, while the work was yet in progress. Perhaps this publication was 
premature ; but be that as it may, it wau clearly indicated in the memoir 
'taelf that two corrections would eventually be required ; the iHie afiecting 
aU the longitudes, and the other all the gtiometriiMUy~dedvced elevations 
in that list. 

The longitude of P^leebheet, as given by Mr. Reuben Burrow, 
79° 41' 45" E. was taken, pro (empor<,aa the first meridian of the survey, 
though well known to err in defect seven or eight minutes; and i take 
the present opportunity of mentioning that the correction in longitude 
+ 8' 39^, which has been adopted in the map, is spplicable to all the 
longitudes given in the ' Anatic Researches.' including Pcleebheet. 

In the second place, and which is more immediately connected with my 
present purpose, the altitude of Kasheepoor (upon which as Ihe uro of 
my observatioDS, all the geometricallf'deduced elevations in the survey are 
based,) was assumed from a mere estimate to be 650 feet. But since then 
many barometrical observations have been made at that pkce, (as will be 
seen in the annexed Tabic,) the mean result giving 722 feet for the dif- 
ference of elevation between Mr. A. Colvin's house at Calcutta, and the 
station at Kasheepoor. The heighls inserted in the map have been thus 
increased seventy-two feet, the correction indicated, which is also due to 
every altitude, as given in the ' Asiatic Researches,' if obtained by geomt- 
irical process. The height of Mr. Colvin's house above the level of Ihe 
sea, though probably not much less than 100 feet, has not been taken into 
consideration, and the altitudes given in the following Table are those 
above Calcutta. 

HaviogbeenoccasionBllyreferred toupon the subject, it seems desiraUe 
to place the whole of the barometrical observations made in Kumaon 
upon record, that the traveller in the mountains may have an easy mode 
of access to them, whether merely to gratify his curiosity, or for any pur- 
pose of utility. 

It was not until a late period of the survey that barometers in service- 
able condition were obtained, though neither trouble nor expense were 
spared to procure ihem ; alt were broken upon the road, until, in April, 
lfll7, being then in camp at Gungo lee-Hath, I received from a friend a 
portable bsrometer by Ramsden. The instrument was originally intended 
fbr measuring such heights as occur in Great Britain. I managed, how- 
CTCr, to get the scale lengthened downwards by a native workman ; there 
«H no contrivance for viewing the surface of the mercury in the reservoir 
from without, or of adjusting it to the beginning of the scale. Tlie irrc- 
'the interior of the reservoir, — a cylinder having a broad and 
dtter extremity, — rendered it extremely difficult to be 



Altituden of Places in Kumaoli. 377 I 

gauged. Near the upper surrace, 13 inches in the tube were equivalent to 
only tV of an inch in the reservoir. 

It was subsequently ascerl^ineil, by comparison with a barometer of lh« 
best description, that the tube had been truly filled, and the scale precisely 
adjusted. All the observations, from No. 1 to No. 138, inclusive, were 
made with this instrument only, and must be considered approximate 
results. In computing the altitudes from these, no cijuation has been 
applied to correct (he place of the zero point, and that usually added to 
the length of the column of mercury in the lower temperature (to com* 
pensale for expansion,) has also been omitted. The one being always 
additive to, and the other, almost without exception, subtractive from the 
mult, have a tendency, pro tanlo, to compensate for each other. 

At the time these observations commenced, no corresponding series at 
Calcutta was procurable, I was, therefore, obliged to adopt the mean 
height of the barometer and thermometer at noon, for each month of the 
year, as inferred from the Meteorological Diaries, which had been formerly 
kept at the Presidency and published in the ' Asiatic Researches,' in lieu of 
correspondent observations. The variations to which these are liable in 
diOerent years in Bengal are so small, that they might indeed be used 
without risk in all eusea where very great accuracy is not required. The 
altitudes themselves, us far as subsequent observations made with better 
instruments show, appear to be generally a hltle in defect; but upon the 
whole, I am of opinion that the difference between the approximate 
olUludcs here given, and those which could have been obtained by the 
beat barometer, and mure rigorous compulation, all other things remaining 
the same, will rarely, if ever, exceed 101) feet. 

In the spring of 1818, 1 obtained a supply of five barometers of the 
best description, and in perfect order from Europe. Four of them were 
constructed so as to admit of the adjustment of the zero point; and the 
JilUi, a smull instrument of Sir H. Englcfield's pattern, required an equa- 
tion of Jg in lieu of that adjustment. Among the observations which 
follow, those marked (a) were made with the latter instrument exclusively 
and the value of the equation just mentioned is included in the tail column. 

About thii< time I heard that Mr. Alexander Colvin, of Calcutta, kept a 
Meteorological Diary, and having made application to him upon the sub- 
ject, he most kindly consented to supply me. monthly, with a copy. This 
gentleman's diary was kept with such undeviating regularity, and was 
transmitted to me during the residue of my survey with such puuctuahty, 
as to render it invaluable for my purpose; and his polite and liberal 
attention demands my grateful acknowledgment. I am also indebted to 
Major General Hardwicke for occasional extracts from his diary kept at 
Dum-dum. 

Generally speaking. I have preferred taking the mean of the Calcutta 
observations for five days, to that immediately corresponding with my own. 
Thus, an ohseivution made in the muunlains on the 10th of any month, 
would be computed with the nieau of those by Mr. Colvin ou lUe Bih, 9th> 



In 

L exiun 

m 



AtHtudea of Placat in Kwmaoii. 

10th, tith, uid 13th. I feel convinced, that almost every instance, in 
which any caaterial dif^repanc; appears in a result deduced from more 
than one observalion, the error is attributable to the " Equation for Tem- 
perature," the theory being, I believe, generally coiisicJered imperfect 

In steady neather, series of observations gave the same results, ns 
nearly as possible, though made at very different seasons of the year. Bat 
the continual travelling about, which the survey required, seldom pertnitted 
observations to be made in a continued series, and made it unavoidable 
to register a great number which were taken when the weather wna unsettled. 
A fall of rain will often, in particular situations in the hills, depress the 
temperature 10 or 15 degrees in a few hours, a circumstance which does 
not occur in Calcutta, though similar weather be experienced, and this, if 
it be a lofly station, seriously alTects the altitude. The barometer mean- 
while seldom varies, as dependent upon rain or even snow, and any 
trifling alteration which may take place in that instrument, is ofleu con- 
trary to what might be expected from a diminution of temperature. 

ITie unequal variations of temperature at places within the mountains, 
an<i near to each other, — if differing considerably in altitude, — is still 
more remarkable ; and corresponding simultaneous observations at two 
such stations would give results fluctuating between extremes more widely 
removed, than would limit llie dlHerences apparent in the calculations if 
separately compared with the Calcutta obseryalions. The tendenoy of the 
barometer to rise and fall (at every place where I have had an opportunity 
of observing it for several days together) appeared lo me to correspond, 
almost precisely, and from day to day, with the Calcutta instrument; the 
general cha/igcs of temperature are analogous also. Such instances, us I 
have alluded to above, are to be cnntiidered as exceptions only. 

Upon the whole I am of opinion that if a series of barometrical levels 
could be carried on step by step from the plains to the passes of the 
Uimaleea, (which by the nay would exclude all other business.) and with 
that account, unavoidably, every individual error accumulated from un- 
equal variations of temperature, and a multiplicity of other causes, the 
ultimate object of inquiry would not be attained with nearly an equal 
degree of precision to that derived from comparing directly the last obser- 
vation of the series with one correspondent at Calcutta. By the latter 
mode no error is extended to a second station ; and, as the barometer in 
India is not affected by changes of weather, Ac. as in places more distant 
from the Equator, and as its diurnal end annual variations in the hills 
correspond with those observed in Calcutta, the distance between the 
places of observation furnishes of itself no argument that I am aware of, 
unfavourable to the greatest accuracy which this instrument is competent 
to afford. 

In such a multitude of figures there must inevitably occur many errors, 

Dud the more so, as not one of the results have been ever recomputed, or 

examined by a second person. The state of my health precludes me from 

cutrngnow any extensive revision, and 1 can only express a hope that 

inaccuntcies may not prove unreasonably numerous. -^h 




Amtudea of Placet m JTwiaotl. 
COMPUTATION OF THE ALTITUDES. 



9J» 



The allitudei from Xo. 1 to No. 138 inclitsive, have been computed 
according to a rule given in the pampblet usually deUnred with Sir H. 
EngteGeld'a portable barometer, descriptive of the use Mid application of 
that instrumenL 

The residue are calculated b; tbe formula cantaiaed ia a small but use- 
fill publication, entitled * A Companion to the Mountain Barometer,' by 
Mr. Thomas Jones, opticiau, of Charing Cross. 

Tbe following ara a few examples of the latter class, given somewhat 
more at length. In every case, when it was possible to do so, tbe obser- 
vation was delayed until the instrument had taken tbe tonperature of the 
atmosphere ; and in the Calcutta obaemtions no re^stqr of the detached 
Ibennometer is included. 



D>tr. 


PliceorObBniilioii. 


& 


Th™. 


PUce of CompulMa. 


Itaram 


Thom. 


i. 


D. 


181S 
Feb. 19 
,, 20 

,, 32 
>> 23 




29-04S 
■016 
■168 
■OS 
•109 


i 

68-5 
68 
GG 


70 
GS 
68-5 

Be 

66 


[ CftkultK, 1 
tMr.Colviu'iihuiuej 


■29-85 
•fll 
•94 

•96 


73 
73 
78 
78 
80 
76 -J 


29-096 


63-1 


68.1 


Z9^914 


Co»tip. 


^ -liT 


CnK^ 


Je ^4-5 



B. 


B. 


A. 


D. 


29-914 
29^096 

+ 026 


929 
1628 


20 


24^5 
20 


4-i 
x-0058 


44-6 


29-122 


22-2 
3-0 


699 
+ 66-6 


•290 
•232 


66-6 


765-6 


■02610 



Altitude or KuhBBpoDE Fadoir Bui^skm, 765*6 fietr-Sw No. 142. 




M.Uwka of Plaee§ in KuaUtM. 



At KmoDluog, a h«llui){ gtoimd, neu Nntee F«m, meui of T«o Dsp' ObHrratioiit 
OQ the 20lh and 21(t«t Aokw*. ISIBt— See No. 263. 



B. 


H. 


A. 


D. 


29-485 

17 -542 

-050 


1,305-5 
14,762 


2G-1 
II- 


26-1 
11-7 


14-4 
■0035 


37-B 


17-592 


lB-9 
57-5 


13,456.5 
1,086-75 


720 
432 


945 
1323 
945 


14,543-25 


■05O40 


1086-75 



le of tent at KKwnluDg, 14,543 feet. 



AuKiiit2lBt, 1818, aDObnmtioD, at Cmt of Neelee Fan, compared with the 
Buometer at Keoontung, one bom and a qitaitei aflarwaida. 





a 


a. 


A. 


D. 


17-542 

16-270 

•013 


14,837 
16,778 


12-2 
8-3 


12-2 
8-3 


3-9 
■0033 


20-5 


16-283 


10-25 

8-3 


1,941 

+es-09 


117 

117 


3075 
S200 


Diff. Altitude = 

iUoonl«nB..= 


+2,020-08 
14,5M-25 


-012S7 


(t5-075 


AlUtui 


il«....= 


16,569-33 



' AHitudeofNeetceFus,16,569feet. SeeNo.264. 




'MUhtdes tfPlaen in KumaoA. 



Ci«it dT tbe Put eompued with lUjor QentnU Bud*idc«'i INiTft 



B. 


H. 


A. 


D. 






29-fil 

16-2? 

•065 


1,2S3 
10,694 


28-5 
8-3 


28-5 
8-3 


■0032 




6-i>9 

920 
1104 






I,212-se 


606 
■06464 



AltitudeofNe>UeFu(,16,G24 fiwt. S0aNi).263. 



At SjreeuQgur Baogalow, id October, 1819. See No. 483. 





B 


H. 


.A. 


D. 


29-75 
27-948 

•ooe 


1,072 
2,695 


31-1 
30 


31-1 
30 


1-1 
•0<»G 


61-1 


27-954 


30-5 
6-9 


1,623 
+ 210-45 


-00616 


2745 
1830 


1,833-45 


210-45 



Altitude of SiTeenngui Bungalow, = 1 ,833 feet 




AUHindM t^Plam in KwrnwO. 



Tbe ume ObMmlioB eotopand with ou nmuUHMM at Faona, tha Altitndi of which 
place, 1^ mwn of nanunxu Otaemtioitl, i* &,238ic«t. 





B. 


H. 


A. 


D. 


2r'948 

24-GaS 

■048 


2,701 
G,S87 


30 
20-8 


30- 
20-6 


9-4 
•0049 


50-6 


M-rsi 


2S'3 
13*6 


3,186 
.*. 344-08 


846 
376 


iai8 

759 
253 


BalowP 


«»«..= 


-3,530-08 
5,238 


■04606 








1,707*92 


344-08 



Bungalow, 1 ,70S feat. See N 



A l«Dt neai CbnulDrtiiidiuiee Templo, 6th, 7lh, Stfi, 9IIi, and 1 0th of October, 1 31 9. 



B. 


H. 


A. 


D. 


29-797 

23-318 

•044 

23-362 


1,031 
7,371 


98-9 
19-5 


38-9 
19-5 


9^4 
-0047 


48-4 


27 


6,340 
653-4 


658 
376 


1694 

484 


6,993-4 


■04418 


G53-4 




AUHndea t^ Plaeea ht KvmaoH 361 

vra. 

The ume coropmd with tunultaiMiMu ObMTTCtioii* tl Pmiim, on tha Sth, 9tlv uid 
10th Oetobn, 1819. 





B. 


H. 


A. 


D. 


23-30B 

24-7Ga 

•005 


?,433 

,. 
5,846 


20 
18-9 


20- 
18-9 




l-l 

■0050 


S8-» 


24-770 
Pmsm... 


19-4 
6-7 


+1,587 
+129' 98 
S,23S 


■00550 


1398 


6,954-H 


ie9-»8 



Altitude ofteat, 6,955 feat See No. 488. 



During wAtcA the following ObtareatioM ham betn fMde trith tlu Beavmtltr 
to delermiru the Attitude 0/ Plaeet. 



The Aeqnent recurrence of places bearing the ume name, in Kumaofi, 
would make it extremely difficult for a traveller to identify, in the map, 
those contained in the following list ; many of them could not be inaerted 
there at all for want of space ; and the prodigious numhtr of names (not 
euily legible in the original on account of the shading) which are rendered 
quite unintelligible in the engraved copy, greatly enhances this difficulty, 
which it is hoped the following clue to (he routes, upon which they occur, 
may tend to diminish. 

No. 1 . Pokhnree, Lat. 29° 39V N., Long. 80° W E. 

The route leads vift Bagha Ling Temple, (12,) and proceeds into 
JuwahTralong the course of thcGoree R. to Milum, (36.) thence return- 
ing to Rantee, (44,) turns westerly, crossing Surjoo R. at Soopee-Ford, 
(600 SW. to Byznath and Runchoola, (77,) and by Gunna Nath, (8S,) 
to KalM Math wd Almora. From Kalee Muth E. to Chance- Soop^h 
i ^B3'9yn-Dca, N. to Khurtfh, leturaing by DooograhiUi to Boodha^ 



^^ 



381^ AUitttda cfPlactM in fumooft. 

Jagr^sur, (lOU,) Shem Deo, (HI,) SE. bf Jindee to Rameahur, (lOS,) 
thence returninff bjr Chakhaa to Almora. From Almora by Bsndunee P, 
and Thath, (114,) thence SSW. through Beeajoola Piirguiw (not yet 
publiBhed) to Nanukmuth, (133,) in the Forest PiSleebheet and Kashee- 
poor. 

Fram Kaduepoor, (140, ftc,) by Nujecbabad, (176,) to Kotdwara 
Pass, (178-9.) Lungoor Fort, (182,) Huha Bulee Temple, (188,) North- 
ward to Oonchakot, (198,) and the Nyar R., (134,) to Oolka, (209.) 
(Nos. 135, 136, 137, 138, wilt be found between the two lasUnamed 
places, being misplaced iu List.) The route proceeds to Sireenugur, 
(212,) crosses the Aluknunda R. throu|rh Sindooree, (313,) A^ustmoon- 
dee, (219,) &c. to Kedar Nath, (228,) thence return by same road to 
Ookee-Moth, (235.) cross Toong Nath Ridge, (239,) by Oopdsur, (242,) 
to Peepulkotee, (244,) and Josee Huth, (247.) a detour southerly by 
Pilgo<fnta Ridge, (250,) to Pana, (252,) back from thence to Toonghasee, 
(280,) and along the Dhoulee R. to Neetee Pass, (.264.) Return by same 
road to Toonghaaee, Joaee Muth, (284,) Goprisur, (293.) W. to Nyl and 
S. to D^othula Temple, (299,) to Agur Peak, (303,) cross Ganges R. at 
Bumot, (306,) turn westward to Hureealee Temple, (310.) thence via 
Gopheer, (311.) and Bunraree Temple, (318,) to Oolka Gurh, (320,) 
Sireenugur, (321.) and south to Paoree, (322.) From Paoree ESE. 
to Kuneoor, (332.) S£. to Tamadhond (338,) and Boodtia Kedar, (339,) 
westerly to Kulwaree, and along course of Sanee R. to Ookl^t, thence by 
direct road to Kotdwara (355,) and the Plains. Re-enter the Hills at 
Kotdwara, and proceed thence by Bilkhet (388) on Nyar R. and Doom- 
kot-Khat (397) to Paoree. 

The ne»t route commences with a circuit between Paoree, Oolka-Gnrh, 
and Soomaree, proceed to Chipul-Ghat R. See Talgaon, (419,) SSE. 
from Oolka upon that stream. Various traverses upon upper part ot 
Chipul-Ghat R. up to Bunas, (440,) thence the route turns £., passes 
through Sont, (444,) returning by a circuit to Bunas ; thence in a direct 
line upon Roodur-Prag as far as Biraon, SW. to Dtiwulgurh, (468,) and 
by Soomaree (469) to Paoree (472 to 480.) 

The nest route commences from Sireenugur, (462,) vi& Chundur- 
budunee, (489,) to Deoprag, (492.) to confluence of Nyar R. with the 
Ganges, (495,) along the former stream to Bilkhct, (499,) and junction 
of Chipulghat R. turning NE'. to Dhour-Boonga, (501.) NNW. to 
Doomkot, and thence again ESE'. by Choundkot, and Guwanee, (513,) 
to D<!ba Temple, (518,) crossing Sanee B- about SbE. of the latter 
place to Tulaen, (520.) on Lukhor River, thence in nearly same direcUon 
to Bunduran, (524,) on Ramgunga R., and crossing the ridge separating 
that Btream from the Kosee R., reach the latter river at Mohan, (525,) 
follow its stream to (he Plains vlft Dtiekulee, (,526,) and on to Pt.^leebhee>, 
(331.) _ 

Re-enter the Hills at Tt^ %^ ('>3:),) tg Chumpawut and Fort 
Hastings, 0*>*M^J}eD^^ •'342,> Birar and Jak, (54j,) to 





AltUudet o/Placetiti Kumaoil. 385 

Hawul Bagh, (546.) Deaoend Koaee R. to Dhekulee, and by Kath-kee 
N>D, (557,) ChoumooDh, (562.) and Reonee, (570.) to Kalee-Muth, 
(571.) thence to Nyathana, (574.) Dwara Hath. (576,) Doona Oires, 
(577,) onwards NNW. to Loba Gurhee, (581,) in nme direction, lo 
Khetee-Halsee, (582,) Chandpoor and Kum-lhng, returning thence to 
Kinal, and Dhunpoor Dobree, (591,) which tenninates this tour. 

Then ToUow some nhserralioni on the Plains, and on the lower part of 
the Kalee or Gog^a. R, to (No. 603.) 

The next route be^ns at Dharee Rope Bridge, (605,) about sii 
miles eastward from Sireenujrur, ascending the Mundagnee R. as Tar aa 
Naluhpiitun, (617,) returns eastward of that river to Suteeu and A^r 
Peak, (629,) by Deothul Temple to theGang>es near Kundara, and west- 
ward of the river by Booransee Peak to Gopesur, (fi37.) Crosi 
Aluknunda R. at Peepulkotee Bridge, along left bank of river to Kum 
Prag, (642.) SW. by C hand poor- Piudooalnee, (644,) Murora, (647.) 
to Kunoor, (649,) SSE. by Meldhar. (652,) to Jooneea Ourb, (657,) 
NW. lo bank of Sanee R. near Dhaond, and descend with its stream (o 
Pukbolee, (665,) southward by Bboun, (667,) to Kuman near Ram 
Guni;a R. ; thence NW. to Kulwaree, and westerly by Seela (679) (o 
Danda Mundee (680.) Trace conrse of Heonia R. NW. to Timlee, 
(684,) returning to Keecha Giirhee, (692.) Cross Nyar R. at Hurora 
Qhat. (695,) Situn Temple, Mujeen Temple, (706,) near Sireenugur, and 
thence by Keeark Temple (707) to Ve.one. 

To Talgaoh on Chipnlghat R. (bearing from Oolka Gurh SSE. six 
or seven miles,) and having ascended that stream NE'. to Boonga, turn 
SSW. reaching Sanee R. at Kiibura, (714.) near Kukhtoon, up the 
Htr««m to Kulwaree, (7 16,) and confluence of Lukhor R. (7 IB) with it at 
Pukbolee. Eastwards along the former stream to Sooiigureea and 
Na^ee, thence S'. to Khui^^ Peak. (721,) confluence of Nyr R. witli 
Ram Gunga (732) ut S^ra. up the Ram Guuga to Bik«ea-kee-Syu, 
(725,) Boodka-Kedar and Hasee Temple, (727,) back to Bikeea-kee-Syn, 
and ascend Ghugas R. to Teepoula, (729,) thence vift Koomhpoor to 
Banslee, (733.) by Somesur on Kosee R. to Byznath, (735,) to Chiringa 
on Pindur R.; (736,) Budhsn Gurh Fort, (787.) Koolsaree. (146,) Sir- 
goor Temple, (147.) Bugolee Seera, (148,) to Kurn Frag, (149,) the 
last four numbers being accidentally misplaced in the catalogue. No. 150 
is on the Ganges about midway between Kurn Prag and Roodur Prag. 

Nob. 1 51 to 163, both inclusive, are near Bhudree-Nath and Mana Puss 
tn Tartar;. Nos. 164 and 165, on Aluknunda R, (or Ganges.) 

Noi. 165 to 174 will be found SW. of Almon iu the direction of 
Rooilnrpoor. 



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INDEX. 



Aboo, Mount, 116 

Abjssinia, Journal of a three years' 
residence in, S6B-77 

Adam's Bridge, 7 

Adowah, 370 

Africa, Private Journal kept on the 
Coast of, 220-9 ; Expeditions into 
the Interior of, 3SG-74 

Aide-M^CMre du Voyagenr, Analy- 
sis of, 229-40 

Ajmeer, 125 

Akrobat,301 

Apsley Strait, 130-8 

Arabia, Observations on the Man- 
ners of its Southern Inhabitants, 
192-206 

Architecture, Native American, 
compared with Polynesian, 264 

Arrowsmith's Atlaa, 279, 320 

Arthur's Table, 32 

Astrabad,315 

Attok. 295 

Atrak,3S1,81S 

Azore Islands, 220-5 

Bab-al-Mandib, Straits of, 2D0 
Baginittee, River, Ai 
Balkh.304 



Barbara, 199 
Bathurat Island, 131-5 
B«igb, 2SS 



Bolaun Pass, 288 
Bourchier's Travels, 318 
Bran CO, 228 
Brava Island, 226 
Brooang Pass, 53 
Bumes'Traveb, 288-318 

Cabool, 298, 300 

Camaountes, 273 

Candahar, 287 

Cape Verd Islands, 533-9 

Caria Island, 27 

Cashmere, 69 

Cass Lake, 242-49-51 

Ceylon, on the poisitrilhy of Item- 
ing a Navigable Paau^ betHoefl, 
and the Main Land of India, I-S9 

Charjooee, 309 

Chenab River, 292 

Chilou. Islands of, 1S5-301 

Chonos, Archipelago of, 1 B4 

Circumcision, 259 

ConoUy's Travels, 278-88 

Coomaroh, Fall of, 36-8 

Corobung. — See "Macrebah" 

Customs in India and South Saa 
Islands compared, 260 ; both 
compared vith those id Amorim, 
253 

Cuyuny, River, 26, 39 

Dauder, 288 
Deedwana, 1 29 
Demaun, I2S 
Dembea. Lake, 273 

Dcyrah, 'ii 




Dundan Shikun, 301 
Dura i Zindon, 302 
DorbHnd, 3L2 

Elboon Chwn, 28S 

El Jemm, Amphithe&tre of, 2SG 

Bssington, Port, Memoir on, 162-81 ; 
Descriplion, 163 ; Soil and Pro- 
ductions, 164; Animals, IGG; 
Tides and Cunents. 169; Na- 
tives, 169 

Euphrates, Expedition to, 374 

Falashas, 272 . 
Feeroxkoh, 316 
Fleeming Reef, 13B 
Fuego Island, 225 

Fullodee, 120 

Geographical Arrangement and 
Nomenclature, Hints on, 72^68 
Gondar, 270-3 
Goorgan, River, 280, 314 
Gudook, Pass, 316 
Gundamuk, 297 

Hu-arry, poisonous root, 30 
Harbour, Grace, 213; Anliquities 

near, 214 
Harung Pass, SS 
Hammamat, 204 
Herat, 286 

Himalaya Mountains, 41, 71 
Hodida, 200 
Hurdwar, 41 
Hiuaras, 300 



Jaif-ul-Ajiil, 205 

JaitaruD, 129 

Jallore, 129 

Jaysulmeer, 105-15; Population of, 

110 

Jelum, River, 292 

Jeypur, lis 

Jidda, 202 

Joodpoor, 1 1 S-39 ; Tenure of Lands 

in, 118; Population of. 121; 

Commerce of, 124; Revenue, 126 
Juan Femandei, 1S3 
Julalabad, 297 
Jumna, River, 46, 68 
Jumnotree, 47, 50 

Kababikous, Falls, 250 

Kalinjur, 92-4 

Kaniim, 5S 

Kara Koottui, 302 

Khiva, 282 

Khoorrum, 302 

Kiraueah, 336 

Kohi Baba, 30o 

Ko^chan, 313 

Koondooz, 303 

Kosir, 202 

Kotghar, 61 

Kubbakunna (Plantagenet) Lake, 

243 
Kuldung, 53 
Kumaoii, Altitudes of Stations in, 

376 .. , 

Kunkal, 41 
Kurachee, 125 
Kurawur, 54 
Kurshee, 306 



India, Papers on Countries on the Labrador, 207-12; F^heries of. 

N.W. frontier of, 88, 129 21 1-12 

Indus, ford above Attok, 295 l^c Travers, 242-9 

Itasca Lake, 247 Lahore, 289 




Langnages, Malay and PftlyDMian. 



ooapared.861 
Laptok Pan, 55 
I'Cesa, Rinr, 53 
Leb, 60 

Loonee, River, 103, 
Luxmoore Head, 131 

Macrebih, Fall of; 31 

Malwa>ll2 

Manar, Stnits of, 1-25 

Marwar or Joodpoor, 112-15-39 

Massaroony.Riref, 2S,40; PalUof, 

2S 
Muenderan, 316 
Meerta, 138 

Melville Island, Memoir on, i2»-62 
ProdiKtions, 140; Quadrupeds 
1«; Birds and Reptiles, 144 
Insects, 145; Sea Prodndioni 
Climate, 147; Diseases, 14S 
NaUves, 152 ; Exotic Ptoduc 
tions, 1S9 
Mermaid Shoal, 137 
Menimeh, Mountain Chain, 33 
Meshed, 286, 313 
Meshed-e- Mitre aun, 282 
Meywar, 112 
Musisstppi, Expedition to esptoK 

the sources ot 240-54 
Mokfaa, 200 
Moorghab, River, 31 1 
Moozderan, 312 
Howna Kaab, 335 
Mowaa Roa, 338 
Huchnee, 296 
Muggra, 44 
Mukaliah, 192-9 
Muiar, 304 

Nagore, 137-8 
Nako, S7 



Naina lUver, 244 

NewfoundUnd Station, private Jour- 
nal kept on, 207-20; Vocabnlajy 
of Native Language, 318 

Nueyur, 102-5 

Nuggur, 93, 96 . 

Orders of Society in India and the 
South Sea Islands, 259 ; compared 
with those in America, 262 

Otaheite, 186-91 

Oxus, supposed ancient course, 28 1 ; 
passage at Khoju Salu, 305 ; at 
Charjooee, 309 

Pabur, River, 52, 69 

Palestine Association, i, ii 

Pallee, 124 

Parbusir, 129 

Pareenuggur, 96 

Parkur, and Desert adjoining, 92. 
102 ; Population of, 93, 100 

Paumbum Pass, between Ramnad 
and Ramlsserain, 3, ID 

Peepar, 129 

Pepin Lake, 249 

Peshawur, 295 

Picture-writing, Mexican, compared 
with Polynesian, 266 

Pind-Dadun Khan, 292 

Pisheen, 287 

Piniddiwin, River, 251 

Poknin, 129 

Polynesian Nations, view of their 

origin and migration, 258-67 
Porto da Ponta do Sol, 827 
Punchpuddur, Salt-works of, 124 
PuDJee, 55 
Puttee, 289 

Quetta, 287 
Raffles',1 Bay, 130-73 



LONDON: 
Printed by William Clovtis, 
Duke-strcet, Lambeth. 




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